Self-encoding sensor with microspheres

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are compositions and methods for combining the output obtained from redundant sensor elements in a sensor array.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED PRIOR APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.13/215,749 filed Aug. 23, 2011, issued Apr. 23, 2013 as U.S. Pat. No.8,426,217, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/834,422 filed Jul. 12, 2010, issued Oct. 4, 2011 as U.S. Pat. No.8,030,094, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/040,504 filed Jan. 21, 2005, issued Jul. 13, 2010 as U.S. Pat. No.7,754,498, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/287,573 filed Apr. 6, 1999, issued Mar. 25, 2008 as U.S. Pat. No.7,348,181, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 08/944,850 filed Oct. 6, 1997, issued Oct. 3, 2006 as U.S. Pat.No. 7,115,884, and PCT/US98/21193 filed Oct. 6, 1998, all of which arehereby expressly incorporated by reference in their entireties.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SPONSORED FUNDING

This invention was made with government support under contract numberN00014-94-1-0312 awarded by the Department of the Navy, Office of NavalResearch. The government may have certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is generally concerned with chemical sensors,sensor arrays and sensing apparatus for the detection of gaseous andliquid analytes. More particularly, the invention is directed to opticalchemical sensors and the detection and evaluation of optical datagenerated by sensing receptor units.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The use of optical fibers and optical fiber strands in combination withlight absorbing dyes for chemical analytical determinations hasundergone rapid development, particularly within the last decade. Theuse of optical fibers for such purposes and techniques is described byMilanovich et al., “Novel Optical Fiber Techniques For MedicalApplication”, Proceedings of the SPIE 28^(th) Annual InternationalTechnical Symposium On Optics and Electro-Optics, Volume 494, 1980;Seitz, W. R., “Chemical Sensors Based On Immobilized Indicators andFiber Optics” in C.R.C. Critical Reviews In Analytical Chemistry, Vol.19, 1988, pp. 135-173; Wolfbeis, O. S., “Fiber Optical Fluorosensors InAnalytical Chemistry” in Molecular Luminescence Spectroscopy, Methodsand Applications (S. G. Schulman, editor), Wiley & Sons, New York(1988); Angel, S. M., Spectroscopy 2(4):38 (1987); Walt, et al.,“Chemical Sensors and Microinstrumentation”, ACS Symposium Series, Vol.403, 1989, p. 252, and Wolfbeis, O. S., Fiber Optic Chemical Sensors,Ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1991, 2^(nd) Volume.

When using an optical fiber in an in vitro/in vivo sensor, one or morelight absorbing dyes are located near its distal end. Typically, lightfrom an appropriate source is used to illuminate the dyes through thefiber's proximal end. The light propagates along the length of theoptical fiber; and a portion of this propagated light exits the distalend and is absorbed by the dyes. The light absorbing dye may or may notbe immobilized; may or may not be directly attached to the optical fiberitself; may or may not be suspended in a fluid sample containing one ormore analytes of interest; and may or may not be retainable forsubsequent use in a second optical determination.

Once the light has been absorbed by the dye, some light of varyingwavelength and intensity returns, conveyed through either the same fiberor collection fiber(s) to a detection system where it is observed andmeasured. The interactions between the light conveyed by the opticalfiber and the properties of the light absorbing dye provide an opticalbasis for both qualitative and quantitative determinations.

Of the many different classes of light absorbing dyes whichconventionally are employed with bundles of fiber strands and opticalfibers for different analytical purposes are those more commoncompositions that emit light after absorption termed “fluorophores” andthose which absorb light and internally convert the absorbed light toheat, rather than emit it as light, termed “chromophores.”

Fluorescence is a physical phenomenon based upon the ability of somemolecules to absorb light (photons) at specified wavelengths and thenemit light of a longer wavelength and at a lower energy. Substances ableto fluoresce share a number of common characteristics: the ability toabsorb light energy at one wavelength; reach an excited energy state;and subsequently emit light at another light wavelength. The absorptionand fluorescence emission spectra are individual for each fluorophoreand are often graphically represented as two separate curves that areslightly overlapping. The same fluorescence emission spectrum isgenerally observed irrespective of the wavelength of the exciting lightand, accordingly, the wavelength and energy of the exciting light may bevaried within limits; but the light emitted by the fluorophore willalways provide the same emission spectrum. Finally, the strength of thefluorescence signal may be measured as the quantum yield of lightemitted. The fluorescence quantum yield is the ratio of the number ofphotons emitted in comparison to the number of photons initiallyabsorbed by the fluorophore. For more detailed information regardingeach of these characteristics, the following references are recommended:Lakowicz, J. R., Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, Plenum Press,New York, 1983; Freifelder, D., Physical Biochemistry, second edition,W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1982; “Molecular LuminescenceSpectroscopy Methods and Applications: Part I” (S. G. Schulman, editor)in Chemical Analysis, vol. 77, Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1985; The Theory ofLuminescence, Stepanov and Gribkovskii, Iliffe Books, Ltd., London,1968.

Many of the recent improvements employing optical fiber sensors in bothqualitative and quantitative analytical determinations concern thedesirability of depositing and/or immobilizing various light absorbingdyes at the distal end of the optical fiber. In this manner, a varietyof different optical fiber chemical sensors and methods have beenreported for specific analytical determinations and applications such aspH measurement, oxygen detection, and carbon dioxide analyses. Thesedevelopments are exemplified by the following publications: Freeman, etal., Anal. Chem. 53:98 (1983); Lippitsch et al., Anal. Chem. Acta.205:1, (1988); Wolfbeis et al., Anal. Chem. 60:2028 (1988); Jordan, etal., Anal. Chem. 59:437 (1987); Lubbers et al., Sens. Actuators 1983;Munkholm et al., Talanta 35:109 (1988); Munkholm et al., Anal. Chem. 58:1427 (1986); Seitz, W. R., Anal. Chem. 56: 16A-34A (1984); Peterson, etal., Anal. Chem. 52:864 (1980): Saari, et al., Anal. Chem. 54:821(1982); Saari, et al., Anal. Chem. 55:667 (1983); Zhujun et al., Anal.Chem. Acta. 160:47 (1984); Schwab, et al., Anal. Chem. 56:2199 (1984);Wolfbeis, O. S., “Fiber Optic Chemical Sensors”, Ed CRC Press, BocaRaton, Fla., 1991, 2^(nd) Volume; and Pantano, P., Walt, D. R., Anal.Chem., 481A-487A, Vol. 67, (1995).

More recently, fiber optic sensors have been constructed that permit theuse of multiple dyes with a single, discrete fiber optic bundle. U.S.Pat. Nos. 5,244,636 and 5,250,264 to Walt, et al. disclose systems foraffixing multiple, different dyes on the distal end of the bundle, theteachings of each of these patents being incorporated herein by thisreference. The disclosed configurations enable separate optical fibersof the bundle to optically access individual dyes. This avoids theproblem of deconvolving the separate signals in the returning light fromeach dye, which arises when the signals from two or more dyes arecombined, each dye being sensitive to a different analyte, and there issignificant overlap in the dyes' emission spectra.

Most recently, fiber optic sensors have been employed in arrays ofsemi-selective chemical sensors and pattern recognition schemes todiscriminate and quantify odors. Such approaches have been useful inimplementing the principles of biological olfaction in the design ofsensing devices or systems. In this field of biomimetry, varioustechnologies have been applied to the sensor transduction mechanism. Forexample, surface acoustic wave, conducting polymer, metal oxide sensorfield-effect transistor (MOSFET), piezo-electric, and quartz crystalmicrobalance sensor arrays have been pursued.

While such technologies provide inventive approaches utilizing a varietyof physical and chemical phenomena to odor sensing, there are a numberof limitations to these methods which restrict the efficacy of suchdevices. Firstly, element-to-element reproducibility both within asingle array and between sensor arrays is typically unsatisfactory andthus requires recalibration and network retraining from sensor tosensor. Secondly, most of these methods have a relatively slow responsetime, frequently requiring several minutes to respond to the presence ofan odor. Thirdly, such methods have relatively high detection limits andlow sensitivity, typically not functioning at odor levels below 10 ppm.Fourthly, devices which embody such technologies typically require arelatively large inherent size, thereby restricting miniaturization ofthe sensor array for use in remote sensing applications. Finally,construction of multi-sensor arrays by these methods is complex andinvolves expensive and tedious preparation and placement of individualsensors within a well-defined array.

Most recently, many of these shortcomings have been overcome through theapplication of fiber optic sensor arrays in an artificial nose sensordevice and system. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,320,814 and 5,512,490 to Walt, etal., the teachings of each of these patents being incorporated herein byreference, disclose a fiber optic array formed of heterogeneous,semi-selective thin films which function as sensing receptor units andare able to detect a variety of different analytes and ligands usingspectral recognition patterns. This technology has been applied to avapor-sensing system which utilizes arrays of polymer-dye combinationswhich coat the ends of select optical fibers in a fiber optic bundle.These developments are further described in Dickinson, et al, Nature382:697 (1996) and White, et al, Anal. Chem. 68:2191 (1996).

An innovative feature of the four previously referenced patents to Walt,et al., was the placement of multiple chemical functionalities at theend of a single optical fiber bundle sensor. This configuration yieldedan analytic chemistry sensor that could be remotely monitored via thetypically small bundle. The drawback, however, was the difficulty inapplying the various chemistries associated with the chemicalfunctionalities at the sensor's end; the functionalities were built onthe sensor's end in a step-wise serial fashion. This was a slow process,and in practice, only tens of functionalities could be applied.

U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/818,199 to Walt, et al, theteachings of which are incorporated herein by this reference, disclosesthe use of dye infiltrated polymer microspheres as a substitute forpolymer-dye coating layers in optical fiber array sensors. With thisapproach, a fiber optic bundle serves as a substrate for dye-polymermicrosphere array which contains a variety of microsphere bead sensorshaving different chemical and optical responses to the presence oftarget analytes. One innovative feature of this invention is inproviding for a bead-based analytic chemistry system in which beads ormicrospheres carrying different chemical functionalities may be mixedtogether while retaining the ability to identify the functionality ofeach bead using an optically interrogatable encoding scheme.Additionally, this invention provides for an optical fiber bundle sensorin which the separate beads or microspheres may be optically coupled todiscrete fibers or groups of fibers within the bundle. While theinnovative features of this invention have separate applications, whenimplemented together, the invention provides for an optical fiber sensorthat can support large numbers, thousands or more, of separate chemicalsensor elements, which can be incorporated into a chemical sensor arrayand chemical analysis system. This approach provides for rapidfabrication and assembly of individual sensors and complex sensor arrayscontaining a multitude of discrete sensor types. The method alsoprovides for a high degree of reproducibility and conformity within abatch of sensors and sensor arrays. Additional advantages are realizeddue to the ultrafine sizing available in microspheres. The overall sizeof the sensor array can be substantially reduced to submillimeter scale.This reduction in scale is particularly advantageous for remote sensingarrays.

While the method of applying microsphere sensor elements in chemicalsensor arrays as taught in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/818,199to Walt, et al, has many innovative features, this method has certainlimitations. The method requires a complex multi-step bead encodingprocess to identify the type and location of bead subpopulations used inthe sensor array. Beads are encoded by employing combinations offluorescent dyes in varying ratio. The choice of encoding dyes islimited to those dyes which emit light at different wavelengths uponexposure to excitation light energy. While combinations of dyes indifferent ratios provide for encoding subpopulations of beads, thenumber of dye ratios available for encoding beads with a given dye pairor combination is significantly limited due to crowding the emissionspectrum from peak overlap. In addition, a separate reporting dye isnecessary for obtaining a unique characteristic optical responsesignature for a target analyte. Thus, the encoding dye choice is furtherlimited by selecting dyes whose emission wavelengths do not overlap orinterfere with the reporting dye which is uniquely responsive to thepresence of an analyte.

Another limiting feature of this invention is that the process ofencoding beads requires a series of measurements which calibrate andtrain the sensors and the sensor array. Encoding is initiallyaccomplished by first illuminating the beads with excitation lightenergy and monitoring and recording the type and location of thespecific bead subpopulation within the sensor array having a givenencoding dye ratio. Next, the array is exposed to an analyte whileilluminating the array with excitation light energy in the presence of areporter dye. Those beads which are responsive to the analyte in thepresence of the reporter dye are monitored and mapped on the sensorarray. In addition, the characteristic optical response signature isstored in a library. This step is repeated for each analyte of interestin combination with a reporter dye. Once all bead subpopulations areencoded and their response characteristics monitored and recorded, theentire sensor array must be decoded for each analyte by indexing eachsensor element with the stored optical response signature for eachanalyte. This process of decoding individual subpopulations of beads maybe require additional steps when a large number of subpopulations aredeployed in the array, thereby increasing the training time required foreach array.

Other alternative approaches to bead encoding, utilizing moleculartagging, capillary gas chromatography and electron capture detectionhave been disclosed by Still, et al, Acc. Chem. Res. 29:155 (1996).However, such methods are limited in scope and have been applied only toa narrow class of bead materials having specific chemical functionalityand molecular tags which are readily analyzable.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In general, the invention provides self-encoding analytic chemicalsensor arrays comprising a substrate with a surface comprising discretesites and a population of microspheres comprising at least a first and asecond sub population, wherein each subpopulation comprises at least onereporter dye. The reporting dye has a first characteristic opticalresponse signature when subjected to excitation light energy in thepresence of a reference analyte, and the microspheres are distributed onthe surface. The beads may further comprise a bioactive agent.

In an additional aspect, the invention provides methods of detecting atarget analyte in a sample comprising contacting the sample with asensor array. The sensor array comprises a substrate with a surfacecomprising discrete sites and a population of microspheres. Themicrospheres comprise at least a first and a second subpopulation, eachsubpopulation comprising a bioactive agent and at least one reporterdye. The reporting dye has a first characteristic optical responsesignature when subjected to excitation light energy in the presence of areference analyte and the microspheres are distributed on the surface.The presence or absence (or quantity) of the analyte is then detected.The methods may further comprise identifying the location of eachbioactive agent on said substrate by adding the reference analyte.

In a further aspect, the invention provides methods for reducing thesignal-to-noise ratio in the characteristic optical response signatureof a sensor array having subpopulations of array elements. The methodscomprise decoding the array so as to identify the location of eachsensor element within each sensor subpopulation within the array andmeasuring the characteristic optical response signature of each sensorelement in the array. The baseline of the optical response signature isthen adjusted for each sensor element in said array, and thebaseline-adjusted characteristic optical response signature of allsensor elements within each of the sensor subpopulations is summed. Thecharacteristic optical response signature of each sensor subpopulationas a summation of said baseline-adjusted characteristic optical responsesignatures of all sensor elements within each of said subpopulations isthen reported.

In an additional aspect, the invention provides methods for amplifyingthe characteristic optical response signature of a sensor array havingsubpopulations of array elements. The methods comprise decoding thearray so as to identify the location of each sensor element within eachsensor subpopulation within the array and measuring a characteristicoptical response signature of each sensor element in the array. Thebaseline of the optical response signature for each sensor element insaid array is then adjusted. The baseline-adjusted characteristicoptical response signature of all sensor elements within each of thesensor subpopulations is then summed and the characteristic opticalresponse signature of each sensor subpopulation as a summation of thebaseline-adjusted characteristic optical response signatures of allsensor elements within each of the subpopulations is reported.

The above and other features of the invention including various noveldetails of construction and combinations of parts, and other advantages,will now be more particularly described with reference to theaccompanying drawings and pointed out in the claims. It will beunderstood that the particular method and device embodying the inventionare shown by way of illustration and not as a limitation of theinvention. The principles and features of this invention may be employedin various and numerous embodiments without departing from the scope ofthe invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the accompanying drawings, reference characters refer to the sameparts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarilyto scale; emphasis has instead been placed upon illustrating theprinciples of the invention. Of the drawings:

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating the self-encoding microspheresensor according to the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a process flow diagram of the preparation, encoding andincorporation of microspheres into a sensor array of the presentinvention;

FIGS. 3A and 3B is a schematic process diagram illustrating thepreparation and placement of self-encoded microsphere subpopulations infiber optic sensor array of the present invention;

FIG. 4 is a process flow diagram illustrating microwell formation in thefiber optic bundle and placement of the microspheres in the microwellsaccording to the method of the present invention;

FIGS. 5A and 5B are micrographs illustrating the microwells formed onthe distal end of a fiber optic bundle and microspheres inserted in themicrowell cavities;

FIGS. 6A and 6B are micrographs showing the array of microspheres intheir corresponding microwells prior to and subsequent to agitation bytapping and an air pulse, demonstrating the electrostatic binding of themicrospheres in the microwell cavities;

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of the inventive fiber optic sensor andassociated instrumentation and control system;

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram illustrating the experimental apparatusused in the optical measurements of Examples 7 through 17;

FIG. 9 illustrates the characteristic optical response signature ofporous silica beads infiltrated with Nile Red dye upon exposure totoluene vapor;

FIG. 10 illustrates the characteristic optical response signature of PMSbeads infiltrated with Nile Red dye upon exposure to methanol vapor;

FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate the characteristic optical responsesignature of a PS802 coated porous silica bead infiltrated with Nile Reddye upon exposure to toluene and methanol vapor;

FIGS. 12A and 12B illustrate the characteristic optical responsesignature of a PDPO coated porous silica beads infiltrated with Nile Reddye upon exposure to toluene and methanol vapor;

FIG. 13 illustrates the characteristic optical response signature ofporous silica beads infiltrated with Nile Red dye upon exposure to ethylacetate vapor;

FIG. 14 illustrates the innovation of optical response signal summingfor reducing signal-to-noise ratios in Nile Red infiltrated PMS beadsubpopulation measurements of methanol vapor;

FIG. 15 illustrates the innovation of optical response signal summingfor signal enhancement in PMS bead subpopulation measurements ofmethanol vapor;

FIG. 16 compares the characteristic optical response signatures of twoPS802 coated porous silica beads infiltrated with Nile Red dye uponexposure to toluene and methanol vapor;

FIG. 17 compares the characteristic optical response signatures tomethanol vapor which are used for decoding Nile Red infiltrated poroussilica and PMS bead subpopulations in a self-encoded fiber optic sensorarray of the present invention;

FIG. 18 compares the characteristic optical response signatures of NileRed infiltrated porous silica and PMS bead subpopulations to n-propanolvapor in a self-encoded fiber optic sensor array of the presentinvention;

FIG. 19 compares the characteristic optical response signatures of NileRed infiltrated porous silica and PMS bead subpopulations to toluenevapor in a self-encoded fiber optic sensor array of the presentinvention;

FIG. 20 compares the differences in bead swelling response of PS802coated porous silica, poly methyl styrene, and poly methylstyrene/divinyl benzene bead subpopulations upon exposure to toluenevapor;

FIG. 21 depicts sequences used in the array. Each probe has a5′-(NH₂—(CH₂)₆—) functionality for cyanuric chloride activation andattachment to the microspheres. Each complementary target has a5′-fluorescein label;

FIG. 22 depicts microsphere code and target identification. The leftmost column lists the names of the seven probes. The middle columns listthe dye concentrations (mM) used to encode the microspheres. Eachmicrosphere type incorporated two encoding dyes for identification ofthe probe on the bead. The right column lists the percentage of beadsthat correctly identified the target solution.

FIG. 23 depicts microsphere code and target identification. The leftmost column lists the numbers from FIG. 21 which identify the probes.The middle columns list the dye concentrations (mM) used to encode themicrospheres. Each microsphere type incorporated at least one encodingdye for identification of the probe on the bead. The right column liststhe percentage of beads that correctly identified the target solution;

FIG. 24 depicts microsphere array sensitivity. The sensitivity of thesystem using an intensified CCD camera; and

FIGS. 25A-G depict a number of individual experiments and thecoefficient of variances.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present invention provides an analytic chemistry system thatcomprises a self-encoding sensor array comprising a population of beadsor microspheres on discrete locations on the surface of a substrate.Within the bead population are separate bead subpopulations, each ofwhich provides a characteristic optical response signature whenilluminated by excitation light energy in the presence of a referenceanalyte, which may in some cases be the target analyte. Although thesubpopulations may be randomly mixed together, the identity and locationof each bead is determined via a characteristic optical responsesignature when illuminated by excitation light energy in the presence ofa reference analyte.

This allows the decoding of the array, i.e. the identification of thelocation of each subpopulation of beads on an array, to proceed verysimply. In a preferred embodiment, the beads are encoded with one ormore reporter dyes that exhibit a characteristic, i.e. unique, opticalresponse signature to a reference analyte, generally a fluid such as avapor. Thus, in this embodiment, exposure of the entire array to areference analyte will allow the identification of the location of eachbead of each subpopulation. As a result, by comparing the response ofthe entire sensor array to a known analyte, the individual sensorelements of the array are conveniently decoded simultaneous in onesimple measurement. The self-encoding feature of the present inventioneliminates the need for a more complex, multi-step encoding system.

The sensor array can then be used to detect the presence of targetanalytes, for example when the beads also comprise bioactive agents suchas oligonucleotides, by looking for changes in the optical signature ofthe beads upon binding of the target analyte, for example asubstantially complementary labeled oligonucleotide. As will beappreciated by those in the art, this may be done in a variety of ways,generally through the use of a change in an optical signal. This changecan occur via many different mechanisms. A few examples include thebinding of a dye-tagged analyte to the bead, the production of a dyespecies on or near the beads, the destruction of an existing dyespecies, a change in the optical signature upon analyte interaction withdye on bead, or any other optical interrogatable event. Thus, once thelocation of each species of oligonucleotide probe has been identified,the array can then be used to detect the presence of unknowns that willpreferably specifically associate with the bioactive agents on thebeads.

In an alternate preferred embodiment, when the target analyte is notlabeled, the optical response of each element in the array can becompared to a library of characteristic optical response signatures forits corresponding bead subpopulation type, where the characteristicoptical response signature to various analytes has been previouslymeasured and recorded, and either the identity of the unknown can bedetermined or the sensor array can be trained to associate the measuredresponse with a particular analyte which is then added to the library ofresponse signatures.

The present invention overcomes certain limitations of the current artby embodying the innovation of a self-encoding sensor array wherein acharacteristic optical response signature is produced by the interactionof specific bead subpopulation compositions with a reporter dye.

In the self-encoding sensor array of the present invention, the responsesignal to a target analyte serves both as a response signature for thetarget analyte and as the encoding signal for the entire sensor arrayand subpopulations within the array. The decoding of the array is thusaccomplished in a one-step process during the array response measurementof a target analyte and utilizes the very response which is used toidentify the target analyte. The bead encoding is thus incorporated intothe array by the nature of the bead subpopulation responses to targetanalytes.

In the present invention, each bead-dye combination of a subpopulationhas a characteristic optical response signature when exposed to a givenfluid, usually a vapor. The self-encoding concept is provided by theunique response characteristics of the dye in combination with aspecific bead matrix material. Thus the bead subpopulations which arerandomly dispersed in a sensor array can be rapidly identified andlocated after placement in the array simply by exposing the sensor arrayto a known test fluid and matching the resulting optical responsesignature to those obtained for each bead subpopulation. With thisapproach, the beads are self encoding and the response characteristicsof the entire sensor array are rapidly determined and stored formeasurement of a target analyte. The method of the present invention isparticularly useful in applications of sensor arrays containingthousands of sensors having distinctive optical response signaturecharacteristics.

An additional benefit of the present invention is that it allows thesynthesis of the bioactive agents (i.e. compounds such as nucleic acidsand antibodies) to be separated from their placement on an array, i.e.the bioactive agents may be synthesized on the beads, and then the beadsare randomly distributed on a patterned surface. Since the beads areself-encoded by having dyes present that have known responses to areference analyte, this means that the array can later be “decoded”,i.e. after the array is made, a correlation of the location of anindividual site on the array with the bead or bioactive agent at thatparticular site can be made. This means that the beads may be randomlydistributed on the array, a fast and inexpensive process as compared toeither the in situ synthesis or spotting techniques of the prior art.Once the array is loaded with the beads, the array can be decoded, orcan be used, with full or partial decoding occurring after testing, asis more fully outlined below.

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, ultra-fine, porousmicrobeads or microspheres are utilized as individual sensors. Theutilization of porous micron-scale sensors provides for improved sensorresponse and sensitivity. The reduction in sensor dimensionsubstantially reduces the diffusion length and time for analyteinteraction with individual sensors and significantly shortens thesensor response time, while simultaneously enhancing sensor sensitivityand lowering detection limits.

In another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the sensorarray is comprised of subpopulations of beads or microspheres which aredisposed on a distal end of an optical fiber bundle wherein the separatebeads or microspheres may be optically coupled to discrete fibers orgroups of fibers within the bundle. Since typically, such fiber opticbundles comprise thousands of discrete fibers, the present inventionthus provides for an optical fiber sensor which can support a largenumber, thousands or more, of sensor array elements of distinct andvarying subpopulations each having a characteristic optical responsesignature when exposed to an analyte while being illuminated byexcitation light energy.

In one preferred embodiment, the distal end of a fiber optic bundlesubstrate is chemically etched so as to create a cavity or micro-well atthe end of a discrete fiber. In the preferred embodiment, each one ofthe beads is located within separate microwells formed at terminal endsof optical fibers of the bundle. These microwells are formed byanisotropic etching of the cores of the optical fibers with respect tothe cladding. The resultant etched cavity is dimensioned foraccommodating an individual microbead sensor and for providing opticalcoupling of the individual bead sensor with the discrete optical fiberin the fiber bundle. Since typical fiber optic bundles contain thousandsof discrete fibers, this embodiment provides for the individual opticalcoupling of thousands of sensors in a sensor array, thereby providingfor a large number of independent sensor measurements for each beadsubpopulation within the array.

Due to both the large number of bead sensor subpopulations available andthe correspondingly large number of sensor elements within eachsubpopulation, a significant innovation of the present invention is inproviding for thousands of independent sensor response measurements in asingle sensor array. This enables another significant innovation of thepresent invention by providing for the summing and amplification of thecharacteristic optical response signatures of multiple independentmeasurements taken from sensor beads within each sensor array beadsubpopulation. This approach directly mimics the actual behavior of thehuman olfactory where the combined signals from thousands of receptorcells in each of grouping of nearly a thousand different receptor celltypes found in the epithelium layer, none of which are particularlysensitive in themselves, lead to a highly amplified sensory response toodors [see J. S. Kauer, Trends Neurosci. 14:79-95 (1991)].

The present invention thus embodies the evolutionary scent amplificationprocess found in the human olfactory system in order to significantlyenhance sensor array sensitivity to analytes by summing the low-levelresponses of a large number of sensor array elements. By summing theresponses from several beads at low vapor concentrations, a substantialimprovement in signal-to-noise ratios is achieved, exceeding a factor often or more. This innovation has led to reducing the detection limit ofthe sensor array by over an order of magnitude. The enhancement insensitivity provided by the sensor array of the present invention isgenerally known to be directly proportional to the square root of thenumber of independent sensor bead responses available for summing. Withsuch enhancements, detection limits approaching parts per billion areachievable.

In preferred embodiments, the sensor beads are self-encoded using areporter dye that is preferably infiltrated or entrapped within thebeads. The reporter dye may be a chromophore or phosphor but ispreferably a fluorescent dye, which due to characteristically strongoptical signals provide a good signal-to-noise ratio for decoding.Although not necessary, the self-encoding can also be accomplished byutilizing the ratios of two or more reporting dyes having characteristicand discrete emission peaks and measuring the peak intensity ratios uponillumination with excitation light energy.

According to another embodiment, the invention also concerns a chemicalsensor array designed with a predetermined chemical specificity. In thisembodiment, additional chemical functionality can be incorporated intoeach sensor subpopulation by attaching a desired moiety to the surfacesof the beads. In another embodiment, the sensor array has a populationof beads carrying chemical functionality at, on or near, a distal end ofthe bundle. The ability to monitor optical signature changes associatedwith individual or multiple beads interacting with a target analyte isprovided by optically coupling those signature changes into separateoptical fibers or groups of fibers of a fiber optical bundle fortransmission to the proximal end where analysis is performed eithermanually, by the user, or automatically, using image processingtechniques.

Although each sensor is different insofar that it has a differentdistribution of the subpopulations of beads within its microwells, onlythose beads that exhibit a positive optical response or signature changeto a target analyte of interest need to be decoded. Therefore, theburden is placed on the analysis rather than on sensor manufacture.Moreover, since the beads and fibers in the array can be monodisperse,the fluorescent regions arising from signal generation are extremelyuniform and can be analyzed automatically using commercially availablemicroscopy analysis software. Such image processing software is capableof defining different spectral regions automatically and counting thenumber of segments within each region in several seconds.

Accordingly, the present invention provides array compositionscomprising at least a first substrate with a surface comprisingindividual sites. By “array” herein is meant a plurality of bioactiveagents in an array format; the size of the array will depend on thecomposition and end use of the array. Arrays containing from about 2different bioactive agents (i.e. different beads) to many millions canbe made, with very large fiber optic arrays being possible. Generally,the array will comprise from two to as many as a billion or more,depending on the size of the beads and the substrate, as well as the enduse of the array, thus very high density, high density, moderatedensity, low density and very low density arrays may be made. Preferredranges for very high density arrays are from about 10,000,000 to about2,000,000,000, with from about 100,000,000 to about 1,000,000,000 beingpreferred. High density arrays range about 100,000 to about 10,000,000,with from about 1,000,000 to about 5,000,000 being particularlypreferred. Moderate density arrays range from about 10,000 to about50,000 being particularly preferred, and from about 20,000 to about30,000 being especially preferred. Low density arrays are generally lessthan 10,000, with from about 1,000 to about 5,000 being preferred. Verylow density arrays are generally less than 1,000, with from about 10 toabout 1000 being preferred, and from about 100 to about 500 beingparticularly preferred. In some embodiments, the compositions of theinvention may not be in array format; that is, for some embodiments,compositions comprising a single bioactive agent may be made as well. Inaddition, in some arrays, multiple substrates may be used, either ofdifferent or identical compositions. Thus for example, large arrays maycomprise a plurality of smaller substrates.

In addition, one advantage of the present compositions is thatparticularly through the use of fiber optic technology, extremely highdensity arrays can be made. Thus for example, because beads of 200 nmcan be used, and very small fibers are known, it is possible to have asmany as 250,000 different fibers and beads in a 1 mm² fiber opticbundle, with densities of greater than 15,000,000 individual beads andfibers per 0.5 cm² obtainable.

The compositions comprise a substrate. By “substrate” or “solid support”or other grammatical equivalents herein is meant any material that canbe modified to contain discrete individual sites appropriate for theattachment or association of beads and is amenable to at least onedetection method. As will be appreciated by those in the art, the numberof possible substrates are very large, and include, but are not limitedto, glass and modified or functionalized glass, plastics (includingacrylics, polystyrene and copolymers of styrene and other materials,polypropylene, polyethylene, polybutylene, polyurethanes, Teflon™,etc.), polysaccharides, nylon or nitrocellulose, resins, silica orsilica-based materials including silicon and modified silicon, carbon,metals, inorganic glasses, plastics, optical fiber bundles, and avariety of other polymers. In general, the substrates allow opticaldetection and do not appreciably fluorescese.

Generally the substrate is flat or planar, although as will beappreciated by those in the art, other configurations of substrates maybe used as well; for example, three dimensional configurations can beused, for example by embedding the beads in a porous block of plasticthat allows sample access to the beads and using a confocal microscopefor detection. Similarly, the beads may be placed on the inside surfaceof a tube, for flow-through sample analysis to minimize sample volume.Preferred substrates include optical fiber bundles as discussed below,and flat planar substrates such as glass, polystyrene and other plasticsand acrylics.

At least one surface of the substrate is modified to contain discrete,individual sites for later association of microspheres. These sites maycomprise physically altered sites, i.e. physical configurations such aswells or small depressions in the substrate that can retain the beads,such that a microsphere can rest in the well, or the use of other forces(magnetic or compressive), or chemically altered or active sites, suchas chemically functionalized sites, electrostatically altered sites,hydrophobically/hydrophilically functionalized sites, spots of adhesive,etc.

The sites may be a pattern, i.e. a regular design or configuration, orrandomly distributed. A preferred embodiment utilizes a regular patternof sites such that the sites may be addressed in the X-Y coordinateplane. “Pattern” in this sense includes a repeating unit cell,preferably one that allows a high density of beads on the substrate.However, it should be noted that these sites may not be discrete sites.That is, it is possible to use a uniform surface of adhesive or chemicalfunctionalities, for example, that allows the attachment of beads at anyposition. That is, the surface of the substrate is modified to allowattachment of the microspheres at individual sites, whether or not thosesites are contiguous or non-contiguous with other sites. Thus, thesurface of the substrate may be modified such that discrete sites areformed that can only have a single associated bead, or alternatively,the surface of the substrate is modified and beads may go down anywhere,but they end up at discrete sites.

In a preferred embodiment, the surface of the substrate is modified tocontain wells, i.e. depressions in the surface of the substrate. Thismay be done as is generally known in the art using a variety oftechniques, including, but not limited to, photolithography, stampingtechniques, molding techniques and microetching techniques. As will beappreciated by those in the art, the technique used will depend on thecomposition and shape of the substrate.

In a preferred embodiment, physical alterations are made in a surface ofthe substrate to produce the sites. In a preferred embodiment, thesubstrate is a fiber optic bundle and the surface of the substrate is aterminal end of the fiber bundle. In this embodiment, wells are made ina terminal or distal end of a fiber optic bundle comprising individualfibers. In this embodiment, the cores of the individual fibers areetched, with respect to the cladding, such that small wells ordepressions are formed at one end of the fibers. The required depth ofthe wells will depend on the size of the beads to be added to the wells.

Generally in this embodiment, the microspheres are non-covalentlyassociated in the wells, although the wells may additionally bechemically functionalized as is generally described below, cross-linkingagents may be used, or a physical barrier may be used, i.e. a film ormembrane over the beads.

In a preferred embodiment, the surface of the substrate is modified tocontain chemically modified sites, that can be used to attach, eithercovalently or non-covalently, the microspheres of the invention to thediscrete sites or locations on the substrate. “Chemically modifiedsites” in this context includes, but is not limited to, the addition ofa pattern of chemical functional groups including amino groups, carboxygroups, oxo groups and thiol groups, that can be used to covalentlyattach microspheres, which generally also contain corresponding reactivefunctional groups; the addition of a pattern of adhesive that can beused to bind the microspheres (either by prior chemicalfunctionalization for the addition of the adhesive or direct addition ofthe adhesive); the addition of a pattern of charged groups (similar tothe chemical functionalities) for the electrostatic attachment of themicrospheres, i.e. when the microspheres comprise charged groupsopposite to the sites; the addition of a pattern of chemical functionalgroups that renders the sites differentially hydrophobic or hydrophilic,such that the addition of similarly hydrophobic or hydrophilicmicrospheres under suitable experimental conditions will result inassociation of the microspheres to the sites on the basis ofhydroaffinity. For example, the use of hydrophobic sites withhydrophobic beads, in an aqueous system, drives the association of thebeads preferentially onto the sites. As outlined above, “pattern” inthis sense includes the use of a uniform treatment of the surface toallow attachment of the beads at discrete sites, as well as treatment ofthe surface resulting in discrete sites. As will be appreciated by thosein the art, this may be accomplished in a variety of ways.

The compositions of the invention further comprise a population ofmicrospheres. By “population” herein is meant a plurality of beads asoutlined above for arrays. Within the population are separatesubpopulations, which can be a single microsphere or multiple identicalmicrospheres. That is, in some embodiments, as is more fully outlinedbelow, the array may contain only a single bead for each bioactiveagent; preferred embodiments utilize a plurality of beads of each type.

By “microspheres” or “beads” or “particles” or grammatical equivalentsherein is meant small discrete particles. The composition of the beadswill vary, depending on the class of bioactive agent and the method ofsynthesis. Suitable bead compositions include those used in peptide,nucleic acid and organic moiety synthesis, including, but not limitedto, plastics, ceramics, glass, polystyrene, methylstyrene, acrylicpolymers, paramagnetic materials, thoria sol, carbon graphite, titaniumdioxide, latex or cross-linked dextrans such as Sepharose, cellulose,nylon, cross-linked micelles and Teflon™ may all be used.

Synthetic beads may be fabricated by polymerizing or copolymerizing avariety of condensation or vinyl precursor monomers or by way ofcombinatorial polymer synthesis. Such polymers can be further modifiedby the addition of plasticizers, such as tritolyl phosphate (TTP),triphenyl phosphate (TTP) or dibutyl phthalate (DBP). Particularlyuseful dye-encoding bead candidates for use in sensor arraysubpopulations are polymer and copolymer materials which exhibit eithera characteristic swelling upon exposure to various vapor analytes, acharacteristic polarity difference due to their chemical structure, or acharacteristic chemical adsorption response with various vapor analytes.In prescreening candidate polymers as bead materials and evaluatingcandidates based on desirable swelling, polarity and adsorptioncharacteristics, two particularly useful references are: R. A. McGill,et al., Chemtech, Sep. 24, 1996, p 27-37 and J. W. Grate, et al., Anal.Chem. 68:913-7 (1996).

A variety of bead chemistries may be utilized in fabricating a widediversity of sensor bead subpopulations. For example, the followingcompositions have been found to be particularly useful as candidate beadmaterials: silica, poly(ethylene glycol), polycaprolactone,poly(1,4-butylene adipate), PDPO[poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenyleneoxide)], PS078.5[triethoxysilyl-modified polybutadiene (50% in toluene)], PS078.8[diethoxymethylsilyl-modified polybutadiene in toluene], CP S2067[acryloxypropylmethyl-cyclosiloxane], PS802 [(80-85%) dimethyl-(15-20%)(acryloxypropyl) methylsiloxane copolymer], P S901.5poly(acryloxypropyl-methyl)siloxane], PS851 [(97-98%) dimethyl-(2-3%)(methacryloxypropyl)methylsiloxane copolymer], PABS[poly(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene)], poly(methyl methacrylate),poly(styrene-acrylonitrile 75:25),acryloxypropylmethylsiloxane-dimethylsiloxane copolymer, methylstyrene,polystyrene, acrylic polymers, and poly(methyl styrene/divinyl benzene).Other adsorbents, such as commercially available silica beads adaptedwith a variety of bonded phases for use in phenomenex columns, such asbeads comprising C8, C 18 and phenyl hexyl, are useful as sensor beadmatrices. Inorganic materials such as alumina and zeolites may also beutilized. Other polymers and copolymers having distinguishable andsuitable swelling behavior, polarity and chemical adsorptioncharacteristics are also anticipated as likely bead candidate materials.Particularly useful bead candidate materials include the polymers,copolymers, and polymerized monomers listed in Table 7, Table 8 andTable 10 of U.S. Pat. No. 5,512,490 to Walt, et al, which are hereinincorporated by reference. In alternative embodiments, any synthesizedor commercially available bead materials may be further modified byapplying either a surface treatment or coating to modify thecharacteristic optical response signature. For example, where poroussilica beads are utilized, N-octadecyltriethyoxysilane or3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate may be applied as a silanizationtreatment. In general, “Microsphere Detection Guide” from BangsLaboratories, Fishers Ind. is a helpful guide.

The choice of subpopulations used to form the sensor array elements in aparticular sensor array is primarily determined based on the analyticalpurposes of the sensor and the specific analytes which are targeted fordetection. Typically, bead subpopulations are selected based ondistinguishable differences in their characteristic optical responsesignatures when illuminated by excitation light energy in the presenceof a target analyte. In fabricating self-encoding sensor arrays, beadsubpopulations are selected which have characteristic optical responsesignatures when infiltrated with a reporting dye and illuminated byexcitation light energy in the presence of both a reference analyte andtarget analyte. Thus, preferred bead materials for the sensor array arepreselected based on either physical or chemical differences in beadsubpopulations which produce a characteristic optical response signaturein the presence of the analyte when illuminated by excitation lightenergy.

Features such bead material polarity, chemical structure, chemicalfunctionality, bead surface area, bead pore size, bead swellingcharacteristics, or chemical adsorption behavior, either separately orin combination, contribute to the characteristic optical responsesignature of a given bead subpopulation. In one embodiment, beadmaterials which are permeable or semi-permeable to fluids includingvapors and liquid analytes are preferred. In another embodiment, beadmaterials that swell upon contact with fluids such as vapor or liquidanalytes are preferred. In general, bead materials which have uniquepolarity, structure, pore size, surface area, functionality oradsorption characteristics are particularly useful for sensor beadmatrices of the present invention.

The microspheres comprise a reporting dye that, in combination with thecharacteristic bead matrix material, provides an optical responsesignature that can be used to identify the bead, and thus the attachedbioactive agent, upon exposure to a reference analyte. That is, eachsubpopulation of microspheres (i.e. each sensor element) comprises aunique optical response signature or optical tag, that can be used toidentify the unique bioactive agent of that subpopulation ofmicrospheres; a bead comprising the unique optical response signaturemay be distinguished from beads at other locations with differentoptical response signatures. As is outlined herein, each bioactive agentwill have an associated unique optical response signature such that anymicrospheres comprising that bioactive agent will be identifiable on thebasis of the signature upon exposure to a reference analyte or fluid. Asis more fully outlined below, it is possible to reuse or duplicateoptical response signatures within an array, for example, when anotherlevel of identification is used, for example when beads of differentsizes are used, or when the array is loaded sequentially with differentbatches of beads.

The selection of chemical dye indicators is equally important to thedesign of a fiber optic sensor array system of the present invention. Inthe preferred embodiment, at least one dye 11 is incorporated into themicrosphere 10. In the preferred embodiment, this dye 11 acts as both anencoding dye, for identifying the bead subpopulation location in thesensor array, and a reporting dye, for detecting a target analyte ofinterest. In an alternative embodiment, two or more dyes may be utilizedas encoding-reporter dyes. In a preferred embodiment, at least one dyeis used solely as an encoding dye and a separate dye is added duringanalysis as a reporting dye. In one embodiment, where two or moreencoding dyes are used, the ratio of peak intensities for dye pairs maybe used for encoding the bead subpopulation and a separate reporter dyemay be added during analysis. In an alternative embodiment, conjugateddyes, such as acrlyoyl fluorescein and others, may be utilized where itis desirable to incorporate the dye directly into a synthesized polymeror copolymer bead material.

While the reporter dye 11 may be either a chromophore-type or afluorophore-type, a fluorescent dye is preferred because the strength ofthe fluorescent signal provides a better signal-to-noise ratio whendecoding. In the most preferred embodiment, polarity-sensitive dyes orsolvatochromic dyes are utilized. Solvatochromic dyes are dyes whoseabsorption or emission spectra are sensitive to and altered by thepolarity of their surrounding environment. Typically, these dyes exhibita shift in peak emission wavelength due to a change in local polarity.Polarity changes which cause such wavelength shifts can be introduced bythe bead matrix used for a particular sensor bead subpopulation or, thepresence of a target analyte. The change in polarity creates acharacteristic optical response signature which is useful for bothencoding subpopulations of bead types and for detecting specific targetanalytes. One preferred solvatochromic dye, Nile Red (Eastman Kodak,Rochester, N.Y.), exhibits large shifts in its emission wavelength peakwith changes in the local environment polarity. In addition, Nile Red issoluble in a wide range of solvents, is photochemically stable, and hasa relatively strong fluorescence peak. Additional dyes which areconventionally known in the art and may be used as dyes in the presentinvention are those found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,512,490 to Walt, et al., ofwhich Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6 and Table 11 are incorporatedherein by reference.

Different subpopulations of bead sensing elements can be fabricated forthe sensor array of the present invention by immobilizing Nile Red inpolymer matrices of varying composition. By incorporating Nile Red inbead subpopulations made from different polymer matrices of varyingpolarity, hydrophobicity, pore size, flexibility and swelling tendency,unique subpopulations of sensor beads are produced that reactdifferently with molecules of individual fluids, giving rise todifferent fluorescence responses when exposed to organic fluids. Thisresults in each bead subpopulation having a characteristic opticalresponse signature when exposed to a variety of analytes.

In a preferred embodiment, the dyes are covalently attached to thesurface of the beads. This may be done as is generally outlined belowfor the attachment of the bioactive agents, using functional groups onthe surface of the beads. As will be appreciated by those in the art,these attachments are done to minimize the effect on the dye.

In a preferred embodiment, the dyes are non-covalently associated withthe beads, generally by entrapping the dyes in the bead matrix or poresof the beads.

In one embodiment, the dyes are added to the bioactive agent, ratherthan the beads, although this is generally not preferred.

FIG. 2 is a process diagram illustrating the preparation of the sensorbead subpopulations and sensor bead array. In step 50, suspensions ofthe various bead subpopulations are individually prepared from eithercommercial bead materials or synthesized bead materials which have beenmade from preferred polymeric materials. In this step, the beads may beprewashed, surface treated with a coupling agent, such as a silanizingsolution as used in Example 2 and Example 3, or treated with aplasticizer, such as TTP, TPP or DBP as used in Example 6. In preparingthe bead subpopulations, each bead grouping is typically dispersed in anappropriate solvent which may comprise additions of surfactants ordispersants to enhance dispersion. For example, Tween 20 (J. T. Baker,Cleveland, Ohio), a polyoxyethylenesorbitan monolaurate, has been foundto be particularly useful as a surfactant.

A dye solution is prepared 51 for tagging or encoding each of the beadsubpopulations for subsequent identification and indexing subpopulations in the sensor array in a later decoding step. In the mostpreferred embodiment, a single dye serves both as a sensor bead subpopulation encoding dye and as an analyte reporting dye that is used todetect the presence of a target analyte. In another embodiment, the dyeserves solely to encode the sensor bead subpopulation and an additionaldye is used as a reporter dye for detection of a target analyte. In oneembodiment, two or more dyes may be incorporated into the beadsubpopulation and the peak intensity ratios of dye pairs may be used forencoding the sensor bead subpopulation. Typically, a singlesolvatochromic dye is used as both the encoding dye and reporting dye.In a preferred embodiment, Nile Red dye (Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) isused. For incorporating dye into each bead subpopulation, suspensions ofthe beads prepared in step 50 are mixed in step 52 with dye solutionsprepared in step 51. Preferably, in step 52, the beads or microspheresare placed in a dye solution comprising dye dissolved in an organicsolvent that will swell the microspheres. In step 54, the beads arewashed, centrifuged or filtered to remove excess dye. The microspheresare typically washed in water, methanol, or any suitable solvent thatdoes not swell the microspheres, but in which the dyes' are stillsoluble. This allows the residual dye to be rinsed off without rinsingthe dye out of the microspheres. In an alternative embodiment, achemical moiety or functional group may be attached to the bead surfacefollowing removal of excess dye.

The beads need not be spherical; irregular particles may be used. Whileboth porous and non-porous beads may be utilized, porous beads arepreferred for infiltrating the reporter dye and enhancing theresponsivity and sensitivity of the microsphere sensor due to anincrease in surface area for attachment of the reporter dye, bioactiveagents, etc. The bead sizes range from nanometers, i.e. 100 nm, tomillimeters, i.e. 1 mm, with beads from about 0.2 micron to about 200microns being preferred, and from about 0.5 to about 5 micron beingparticularly preferred, although in some embodiments smaller beads maybe used. FIG. 1 illustrates the construction of a typical bead ormicrosphere sensor 10 comprising a reporting dye 11 entrapped withinbead pores 12.

It should be noted that a key component of the invention is the use of asubstrate/bead pairing that allows the association or attachment of thebeads at discrete sites on the surface of the substrate, such that thebeads do not move during the course of the assay.

The present invention embodies a bead-based analytical chemistry systemin which beads or microspheres are fabricated from various inorganic ororganic materials wherein each material can be identified by acharacteristic temporal optical response signature which enablesverifying both the identity and location of a particular bead within asensor array upon exposure to a reference analyte while illuminatingwith excitation light energy. The invention provides for utilization ofany source of excitation light energy and is not limited to a specificwavelength. The principal requirement of the excitation light is that itproduces emitted light of a characteristic wavelength upon illuminationof a reporter dye associated with a given bead composition.

In a preferred embodiment, the microspheres further comprise a bioactiveagent. By “candidate bioactive agent” or “bioactive agent” or “chemicalfunctionality” or “binding ligand” herein is meant as used hereindescribes any molecule, e.g., protein, oligopeptide, small organicmolecule, polysaccharide, polynucleotide, etc. which can be attached tothe microspheres of the invention. It should be understood that thecompositions of the invention have two primary uses. In a preferredembodiment, as is more fully outlined below, the compositions are usedto detect the presence of a particular target analyte; for example, thepresence or absence of a particular nucleotide sequence or a particularprotein, such as an enzyme, an antibody or an antigen. In an alternatepreferred embodiment, the compositions are used to screen bioactiveagents, i.e. drug candidates, for binding to a particular targetanalyte.

Bioactive agents encompass numerous chemical classes, though typicallythey are organic molecules, preferably small organic compounds having amolecular weight of more than 100 and less than about 2,500 daltons.Bioactive agents comprise functional groups necessary for structuralinteraction with proteins, particularly hydrogen bonding, and typicallyinclude at least an amine, carbonyl, hydroxyl or carboxyl group,preferably at least two of the functional chemical groups. The bioactiveagents often comprise cyclical carbon or heterocyclic structures and/oraromatic or polyaromatic structures substituted with one or more of theabove functional groups. Bioactive agents are also found amongbiomolecules including peptides, nucleic acids, saccharides, fattyacids, steroids, purines, pyrimidines, derivatives, structural analogsor combinations thereof. Particularly preferred are nucleic acids andproteins.

Bioactive agents can be obtained from a wide variety of sourcesincluding libraries of synthetic or natural compounds. For example,numerous means are available for random and directed synthesis of a widevariety of organic compounds and biomolecules, including expression ofrandomized oligonucleotides. Alternatively, libraries of naturalcompounds in the form of bacterial, fungal, plant and animal extractsare available or readily produced. Additionally, natural orsynthetically produced libraries and compounds are readily modifiedthrough conventional chemical, physical and biochemical means. Knownpharmacological agents may be subjected to directed or random chemicalmodifications, such as acylation, alkylation, esterification and/oramidification to produce structural analogs.

In a preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are proteins. By“protein” herein is meant at least two covalently attached amino acids,which includes proteins, polypeptides, oligopeptides and peptides. Theprotein may be made up of naturally occurring amino acids and peptidebonds, or synthetic peptidomimetic structures. Thus “amino acid”, or“peptide residue”, as used herein means both naturally occurring andsynthetic amino acids. For example, homo-phenylalanine, citrulline andnorleucine are considered amino acids for the purposes of the invention.The side chains may be in either the (R) or the (S) configuration. Inthe preferred embodiment, the amino acids are in the (S) orL-configuration. If non-naturally occurring side chains are used,non-amino acid substituents may be used, for example to prevent orretard in vivo degradations.

In one preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are naturallyoccurring proteins or fragments of naturally occurring proteins. Thus,for example, cellular extracts containing proteins, or random ordirected digests of proteinaceous cellular extracts, may be used. Inthis way libraries of procaryotic and eukaryotic proteins may be madefor screening in the systems described herein. Particularly preferred inthis embodiment are libraries of bacterial, fungal, viral, and mammalianproteins, with the latter being preferred, and human proteins beingespecially preferred.

In a preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are peptides of fromabout 5 to about 30 amino acids, with from about 5 to about 20 aminoacids being preferred, and from about 7 to about 15 being particularlypreferred. The peptides may be digests of naturally occurring proteinsas is outlined above, random peptides, or “biased” random peptides. By“randomized” or grammatical equivalents herein is meant that eachnucleic acid and peptide consists of essentially random nucleotides andamino acids, respectively. Since generally these random peptides (ornucleic acids, discussed below) are chemically synthesized, they mayincorporate any nucleotide or amino acid at any position. The syntheticprocess can be designed to generate randomized proteins or nucleicacids, to allow the formation of all or most of the possiblecombinations over the length of the sequence, thus forming a library ofrandomized bioactive proteinaceous agents.

In a preferred embodiment, a library of bioactive agents are used. Thelibrary should provide a sufficiently structurally diverse population ofbioactive agents to effect a probabilistically sufficient range ofbinding to target analytes. Accordingly, an interaction library must belarge enough so that at least one of its members will have a structurethat gives it affinity for the target analyte. Although it is difficultto gauge the required absolute size of an interaction library, natureprovides a hint with the immune response: a diversity of 10⁷-10⁸different antibodies provides at least one combination with sufficientaffinity to interact with most potential antigens faced by an organism.Published in vitro selection techniques have also shown that a librarysize of 10⁷ to 10⁸ is sufficient to find structures with affinity forthe target. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, at least 10⁶, preferably atleast 10⁷, more preferably at least 10⁸ and most preferably at least 10⁹different bioactive agents are simultaneously analyzed in the subjectmethods. Preferred methods maximize library size and diversity.

In one embodiment, the library is fully randomized, with no sequencepreferences or constants at any position. In a preferred embodiment, thelibrary is biased. That is, some positions within the sequence areeither held constant, or are selected from a limited number ofpossibilities. For example, in a preferred embodiment, the nucleotidesor amino acid residues are randomized within a defined class, forexample, of hydrophobic amino acids, hydrophilic residues, stericallybiased (either small or large) residues, towards the creation ofcysteines, for cross-linking, prolines for SH-3 domains, serines,threonines, tyrosines or histidines for phosphorylation sites, etc., orto purines, etc.

In a preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are nucleic acids(generally called “probe nucleic acids” or “candidate probes” herein).By “nucleic acid” or “oligonucleotide” or grammatical equivalents hereinmeans at least two nucleotides covalently linked together. A nucleicacid of the present invention will generally contain phosphodiesterbonds, although in some cases, as outlined below, nucleic acid analogsare included that may have alternate backbones, comprising, for example,phosphoramide (Beaucage, et al., Tetrahedron, 49(10):1925 (1993) andreferences therein; Letsinger, J. Org. Chem., 35:3800 (1970); Sprinzl,et al., Eur. J. Biochern., 81:579 (1977); Letsinger, et al., Nucl. AcidsRes., 14:3487 (1986); Sawai, et al., Chem. Lett., 805 (1984); Letsinger,et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 110:4470 (1988); and Pauwels, et al., ChemicaScripta, 26: 141 (1986)), phosphorothioate (Mag, et al., Nucleic AcidsRes., 19:1437 (1991); and U.S. Pat. No. 5,644,048), phosphorodithioate(Briu, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 111:2321 (1989)),O-methylphosphoroamidite linkages (see Eckstein, Oligonucleotides andAnalogues: A Practical Approach, Oxford University Press), and peptidenucleic acid backbones and linkages (see Egholm, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,114:1895 (1992); Meier, et al., Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 31:1008 (1992);Nielsen, Nature, 365:566 (1993); Carlsson, et al., Nature, 380:207(1996), all of which are incorporated by reference)). Other analognucleic acids include those with positive backbones (Denpcy, et al.,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92:6097 (1995)); non-ionic backbones (U.S.Pat. Nos. 5,386,023; 5,637,684; 5,602,240; 5,216,141; and 4,469,863;Kiedrowshi, et al., Angew. Chem. Intl. Ed. English. 30:423 (1991);Letsinger, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 110:4470 (1988); Letsinger, etal., Nucleosides & Nucleotides, 13: 1 597 (1994); Chapters 2 and 3, ASCSymposium Series 580, “Carbohydrate Modifications in AntisenseResearch”, Ed. Y S. Sanghui and P. Dan Cook; Mesmaeker, et al.,Bioorganic & Medicinal Chem. Lett., 4:395 (1994); Jeffs, et al., J.Biomolecular NMR, 34:17 (1994); Tetrahedron Lett., 37:743 (1996)) andnon-ribose backbones, including those described in U.S. Pat. Nos.5,235,033 and 5,034,506, and Chapters 6 and 7, ASC Symposium Series 580,“Carbohydrate Modifications in Antisense Research”, Ed. YS. Sanghui andP. Dan Cook. Nucleic acids containing one or more carbocyclic sugars arealso included within the definition of nucleic acids (see Jenkins, etal., Chem. Soc. Rev., (1995) pp. 169-176). Several nucleic acid analogsare described in Rawls, C & E News, Jun. 2, 1997, page 35. All of thesereferences are hereby expressly incorporated by reference. Thesemodifications of the ribose-phosphate backbone may be done to facilitatethe addition of additional moieties such as labels, or to increase thestability and half-life of such molecules in physiological environments.In addition, mixtures of naturally occurring nucleic acids and analogscan be made. Alternatively, mixtures of different nucleic acid analogs,and mixtures of naturally occurring nucleic acids and analogs may bemade. The nucleic acids may be single stranded or double stranded, asspecified, or contain portions of both double stranded or singlestranded sequence. The nucleic acid may be DNA, both genomic and cDNA,RNA or a hybrid, where the nucleic acid contains any combination ofdeoxyribo- and ribo-nucleotides, and any combination of bases, includinguracil, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, inosine, xanthanine,hypoxanthanine, isocytosine, isoguanine, and basepair analogs such asnitropyrrole and nitroindole, etc.

As described above generally for proteins, nucleic acid bioactive agentsmay be naturally occurring nucleic acids, random nucleic acids, or“biased” random nucleic acids. For example, digests of procaryotic oreukaryotic genomes may be used as is outlined above for proteins.

In general, probes of the present invention are designed to becomplementary to a target sequence (either the target analyte sequenceof the sample or to other probe sequences, as is described herein), suchthat hybridization of the target and the probes of the present inventionoccurs. This complementarity need not be perfect; there may be anynumber of base pair mismatches that will interfere with hybridizationbetween the target sequence and the single stranded nucleic acids of thepresent invention. However, if the number of mutations is so great thatno hybridization can occur under even the least stringent ofhybridization conditions, the sequence is not a complementary targetsequence. Thus, by “substantially complementary” herein is meant thatthe probes are sufficiently complementary to the target sequences tohybridize under the selected reaction conditions. High stringencyconditions are known in the art; see for example Maniatis et al.,Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2d Edition, 1989, and ShortProtocols in Molecular Biology, ed. Ausubel, et al., both of which arehereby incorporated by reference. Stringent conditions aresequence-dependent and will be different in different circumstances.Longer sequences hybridize specifically at higher temperatures. Anextensive guide to the hybridization of nucleic acids is found inTijssen, Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology—Hybridizationwith Nucleic Acid Probes, “Overview of principles of hybridization andthe strategy of nucleic acid assays” (1993). Generally, stringentconditions are selected to be about 5-10° C. lower than the thermalmelting point (T_(m) for the specific sequence at a defined ionicstrength pH. The T_(m) is the temperature (under defined ionic strength,pH and nucleic acid concentration) at which 50% of the probescomplementary to the target hybridize to the target sequence atequilibrium (as the target sequences are present in excess, at T_(m),50% of the probes are occupied at equilibrium). Stringent conditionswill be those in which the salt concentration is less than about 1.0 Msodium ion, typically about 0.01 to 1.0 M sodium ion concentration (orother salts) at pH 7.0 to 8.3 and the temperature is at least about 30°C. for short probes (e.g. 10 to 50 nucleotides) and at least about 60°C. for long probes (e.g. greater than 50 nucleotides). Stringentconditions may also be achieved with the addition of destabilizingagents such as formamide. In another embodiment, less stringenthybridization conditions are used; for example, moderate or lowstringency conditions may be used, as are known in the art; see Maniatisand Ausubel, supra, and Tijssen, supra.

The term “target sequence” or grammatical equivalents herein means anucleic acid sequence on a single strand of nucleic acid. The targetsequence may be a portion of a gene, a regulatory sequence, genomic DNA,cDNA, RNA including mRNA and rRNA, or others. It may be any length, withthe understanding that longer sequences are more specific. As will beappreciated by those in the art, the complementary target sequence maytake many forms. For example, it may be contained within a largernucleic acid sequence, i.e. all or part of a gene or mRNA, a restrictionfragment of a plasmid or genomic DNA, among others. As is outlined morefully below, probes are made to hybridize to target sequences todetermine the presence or absence of the target sequence in a sample.Generally speaking, this term will be understood by those skilled in theart.

In a preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are organic chemicalmoieties, a wide variety of which are available in the literature.

In a preferred embodiment, each bead comprises a single type ofbioactive agent, although a plurality of individual bioactive agents arepreferably attached to each bead. Similarly, preferred embodimentsutilize more than one microsphere containing a unique bioactive agent;that is, there is redundancy built into the system by the use ofsubpopulations of microspheres, each microsphere in the subpopulationcontaining the same bioactive agent.

As will be appreciated by those in the art, the bioactive agents mayeither be synthesized directly on the beads, or they may be made andthen attached after synthesis. In a preferred embodiment, linkers areused to attach the bioactive agents to the beads, to allow both goodattachment, sufficient flexibility to allow good interaction with thetarget molecule, and to avoid undesirable binding reactions.

In a preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are synthesized directlyon the beads. As is known in the art, many classes of chemical compoundsare currently synthesized on solid supports, such as peptides, organicmoieties, and nucleic acids. It is a relatively straightforward matterto adjust the current synthetic techniques to use beads.

In a preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are synthesized first,and then covalently attached to the beads. As will be appreciated bythose in the art, this will be done depending on the composition of thebioactive agents and the beads. The functionalization of solid supportsurfaces such as certain polymers with chemically reactive groups suchas thiols, amines, carboxyls, etc. is generally known in the art.Accordingly, “blank” microspheres may be used that have surfacechemistries that facilitate the attachment of the desired functionalityby the user. Some examples of these surface chemistries for blankmicrospheres are listed in Table I.

TABLE I Surface chemistry Name NH₂ Amine COOH Carboxylic Acid CHOAldehyde CH₂—NH₂ Aliphatic Amine CO NH₂ Amide CH₂—Cl ChloromethylCONH—NH₂ Hydrazide OH Hydroxyl SO₄ Sulfate SO₃ Sulfonate ArNH₂ AromaticAmine

These functional groups can be used to add any number of differentbioactive agents to the beads, generally using known chemistries. Forexample, bioactive agents containing carbohydrates may be attached to anamino-functionalized support; the aldehyde of the carbohydrate is madeusing standard techniques, and then the aldehyde is reacted with anamino group on the surface. In an alternative embodiment, a sulfhydryllinker may be used. There are a number of sulfhydryl reactive linkersknown in the art such as SPDP, maleimides, α-haloacetyls, and pyridyldisulfides (see for example the 1994 Pierce Chemical Company catalog,technical section on cross-linkers, pages 155-200, incorporated hereinby reference) which can be used to attach cysteine containingproteinaceous agents to the support. Alternatively, an amino group onthe bioactive agent may be used for attachment to an amino group on thesurface. For example, a large number of stable bifunctional groups arewell known in the art, including homobifunctional and heterobifunctionallinkers (see Pierce Catalog and Handbook, pages 155-200). In anadditional embodiment, carboxyl groups (either from the surface or fromthe bioactive agent) may be derivatized using well known linkers (seethe Pierce catalog). For example, carbodiimides activate carboxyl groupsfor attack by good nucleophiles such as amines (see Torchilin et al.,Critical Rev. Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems, 7(4):275-308 (1991),expressly incorporated herein). Proteinaceous bioactive agents may alsobe attached using other techniques known in the art, for example for theattachment of antibodies to polymers; see Slinkin et al., Bioconj. Chem.2:342-348 (1991); Torchilin et al., supra; Trubetskoy et al., Bioconj.Chem. 3:323-327 (1992); King et al., Cancer Res. 54: 6176-6185 (1994);and Wilbur et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 5:220-235 (1994), all of which arehereby expressly incorporated by reference). It should be understoodthat the bioactive agents may be attached in a variety of ways,including those listed above. What is important is that manner ofattachment does not significantly alter the functionality of thebioactive agent; that is, the bioactive agent should be attached in sucha flexible manner as to allow its interaction with a target.

Specific techniques for immobilizing enzymes on microspheres are knownin the prior art. In one case, NH₂ surface chemistry microspheres areused. Surface activation is achieved with a 2.5% glutaraldehyde inphosphate buffered saline (10 mM) providing a pH of 6.9. (138 mM NaCl,2.7 mM, KCl). This is stirred on a stir bed for approximately 2 hours atroom temperature. The microspheres are then rinsed with ultrapure waterplus 0.01% tween 20 (surfactant)-0.02%, and rinsed again with a pH 7.7PBS plus 0.01% tween 20. Finally, the enzyme is added to the solution,preferably after being prefiltered using a 0.45 μm amicon micropurefilter.

After the desired number of bead subpopulations are prepared by themethod of steps 50 through 54, discussed above, the subpopulations aretypically combined in step 55 to provide a random mixture ofsubpopulations for use as sensor array elements prior to dispersing thesubpopulation mixture on the array substrate in step 56. In a preferredembodiment, FIG. 3. shows a schematic process diagram which illustratesthe preparation and placement of self-encoded sensor bead subpopulationsin fiber optic bundle sensor array. In an alternative embodiment, step55 may be omitted and each of the sensor bead subpopulations may beseparately and sequentially positioned on the array substrate inpredetermined locations.

Thus, once the microspheres are made comprising at least one bioactiveagent and a self-encoding reporter dye, the microspheres are added todiscrete sites on the surface of the substrate. This can be done in anumber of ways, but generally comprises adding the beads to the surfaceunder conditions that will allow the association of the microspheres onor at the discrete sites. The association of the beads on the surfacemay comprise a covalent bonding of the bead to the surface, for examplewhen chemical attachment sites are added to both the substrate and thebead; an electrostatic or hydroaffinity, when charge, hydrophobicity orhydrophilicity is used as the basis of the binding; a physical yetnon-covalent attachment such as the use of an adhesive; or a spatialattachment, for example the localization of a bead within a well. Insome embodiments it may be preferable to effect a more permanentattachment after the initial localization, for example through the useof cross-linking agents, a film or membrane over the array.

The microsphere system may be attached to the distal end of the opticalfiber bundle using a variety of compatible processes as outlined below.It is important that the microspheres are located close to the end ofthe bundle. This ensures that the light returning in each optical fiberpredominantly comes from only a single microsphere. This feature isnecessary to enable the interrogation of the optical response signatureof individual microspheres to identify reactions involving themicrosphere's functionality and also to decode the dye/bead setscontained in those microspheres. The adhesion or affixing technique,however, must not chemically insulate the microspheres from the analyte.

FIG. 7 is a schematic block diagram showing the inventive optical fibersensor 200 and associated control system 210. The fiber optic sensor 200comprises a fiber optic bundle 202 (Galileo Electro-Optics, Sturbridge,Mass.), that is typically constructed from many thousands of separatelyclad discrete fibers, each only a few microns in diameter, so that lightdoes not mix between the individual fibers. Any suitable fiber opticbundle 202 may be employed having a range in the number of individualfibers or a range of individual fiber diameters. The microsphere or beadsensor array 100 is attached to the bundle's distal end 212, with theproximal end 214 being received by a conventional z-translationmicroscope stage 216, for vertical positioning of the array 100 forfocusing, and an x-y micropositioner 218 (Burleigh Instruments, Fishers,N.Y.), for horizontal alignment of the array 100 with the optical train.These two components act in concert to properly position the proximalend 214 of the bundle 202 for a microscope objective lens 220. Lightcollected by the objective lens 220 is passed to a reflected lightfluorescence attachment with a four position dichromic cube wheel 222.The attachment 222 allows insertion of light from a 75 Watt Xenon arclamp 224 through the objective lens 220 to be coupled into the fiberbundle 202. The light from the source 224 is condensed by condensinglens 226, then filtered and/or shuttered by filter and shutter wheel228.

Light returning from the distal end 212 of the bundle 202 is passed bythe attachment 222 and is then shuttered and filtered by a second wheel234. The light is then imaged on a charge coupled device (CCD) camera236. A conventional computer 238 executes imaging processing software toprocess the information from the CCD camera 236 and also possiblycontrol the first and second shutter and filter wheels 228, 234. Eithera Macintosh or, alternatively, an IBM-compatible personal computer maybe utilized for controlling the instrumentation and data acquisition.The instrumentation and optical apparatus deployed at the proximal end214 of the fiber optic sensor 200, exclusive of the fiber optic sensor200, are discussed more completely by Bronk, et al., Anal. Chem.67(17):2750-2752 (1995) and Bronk, et al., Anal. Chem. 66:3519 (1994).

The bead sensor array 100 may be attached to the distal end of theoptical fiber bundle 202 using a variety of compatible processes. It isimportant that the microspheres 10 are located close to the end of thebundle. This ensures that the light returning in each discrete opticalfiber predominantly comes from only a single microsphere. This featureis necessary to decode the self-encoded bead subpopulations for thepurpose of identifying both bead type and location, to enable theinterrogation of the optical signature of individual microspheres withina bead subpopulation, and to provide for the summing of individual beadresponses within each subpopulation for reducing signal to noise andimproving signal enhancement. The bead adhesion or affixing technique,however, must not chemically insulate the microspheres from the analyteor interfere with the optical measurement.

FIGS. 5A and 5B are micrographs illustrating the preferred method forattaching beads to a sensor array substrate. Microwells 250 are formedon the distal end 212 of a fiber optic bundle 202 and microspheres 10are inserted in the microwell cavities 250. The microwells 250 areformed at the center of each optical fiber 252 of the fiber optic bundle202. As shown in FIG. 5B, the size of the microwells 250 are coordinatedwith the size of the microspheres 10 so that the microspheres 10 can beplaced within the microwells 250. Thus, each optical fiber 252 of thebundle 202 conveys light from the single microsphere 10 contained in itswell. Consequently, by imaging the end of the bundle 202 onto the CCDarray 236, the optical signatures of the microspheres 10 areindividually interrogatable.

FIG. 4 illustrates how the microwells 250 are formed and microspheres 10placed in the microwells. In one embodiment, a 1 mm hexagonally-packedimaging fiber bundle 202 was employed comprising approximately 20,600individual optical fibers having cores approximately 3.7 μm across (PartNo. ET26 from Galileo Fibers, Sturbridge, Mass.). Typically, the coresof each fiber are hexagonally shaped as a result of glass hardness anddrawing during fiber fabrication. In some cases, the shape can becircular, however.

In step 270, both the proximal 214 and distal 212 ends of the fiberbundle 202 are successively polished on 12 μm, 9 μm, 3 μm, and 0.3 μmlapping films. Subsequently, the ends can be inspected for scratches ona conventional atomic force microscope. In step 272, etching isperformed on the distal end 212 of the bundle 202. A solution of 0.2grams NH₄F (ammonium fluoride) with 600 μl dH₂0 and 100 μl of HF(hydrofluoric acid), 50% stock solution, may be used. The distal end 212is etched in this solution for a specified time, preferablyapproximately 80 seconds.

Upon removal from this solution, the bundle end is immediately placed indeionized water to stop any further etching in step 274. The fiber isthen rinsed in running tap water. At this stage, sonication ispreferably performed for several minutes to remove any salt productsfrom the reaction. The fiber is then allowed to air dry.

As illustrated in FIGS. 5A and 5B, the foregoing procedure producesmicrowells by the anisotropic etching of the fiber cores 254 favorablywith respect to the cladding 256 for each fiber of the bundle 202. Themicrowells have approximately the diameter of the cores 254, 3.7 μm.This diameter is selected to be slightly larger than the diameters ofthe microspheres used, 3.1 μm, in the example. The preferential etchingoccurs because the pure silica of the cores 254 etches faster in thepresence of hydrofluoric acid than the germanium-doped silica claddings256.

The microspheres are then placed in the microwells 250 in step 276according to a number of different techniques. The placement of themicrospheres may be accomplished by dripping a solution containing thedesired randomly mixed subpopulations of the microspheres over thedistal end 212, sonicating the bundle to settle the microspheres in themicrowells, and allowing the microsphere solvent to evaporate.Alternatively, the subpopulations could be added serially to the bundleend. Microspheres 10 may then be fixed into the microwells 250 by usinga dilute solution of sulfonated Nafion that is dripped over the end.Upon solvent evaporation, a thin film of Nafion was formed over themicrospheres which holds them in place. This approach is compatible forfixing microspheres for pH indication that carry FITC functionality. Theresulting array of fixed microspheres retains its pH sensitivity due tothe permeability of the sulfonated Nafion to hydrogen ions. Thisapproach, however, can not be employed generically as Nafion isimpermeable to most water soluble species. A similar approach can beemployed with different polymers. For example, solutions of polyethyleneglycol, polyacrylamide, or polyhydroxymethyl methacrylate (polyHEMA) canbe used in place of Nafion, providing the requisite permeability toaqueous species.

In an another embodiment, an alternative fixation approach employsmicrosphere swelling to entrap each microsphere 10 in its correspondingmicrowell 250. In this approach, the microspheres are first distributedinto the microwells 250 by sonicating the microspheres suspended in anon-swelling solvent in the presence of the microwell array on thedistal end 212. After placement into the microwells, the microspheresare subsequently exposed to an aqueous buffer in which they swell,thereby physically entrapping them in the microwells. By way of exampleof this particular embodiment, one commonly known microsphere materialis tentagel, a styrene-polyethylene glycol copolymer. These microspherescan be unswollen in nonpolar solvents such as hexane and swellapproximately 20-40% in volume upon exposure to a more polar or aqueousmedia. In certain embodiments, this fixation approach may be desirablesince it does not significantly compromise the diffusional orpermeability properties of the microspheres themselves.

FIGS. 6A and 6B show typical microspheres 10 in microwells 250 aftertheir initial placement and then after tapping and exposure to airpulses. FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate that there is no appreciable loss ofmicrospheres from the microwells due to mechanical agitation evenwithout a specific fixing technique. This effect is probably due toelectrostatic forces between the microspheres and the optical fibers.These forces tend to bind the microspheres within the microwells. Thus,in most environments, it may be unnecessary to use any chemical ormechanical fixation for the microspheres.

It should be noted that not all sites of an array may comprise a bead;that is, there may be some sites on the substrate surface which areempty. In addition, there may be some sites that contain more than onebead, although this is not preferred.

In some embodiments, for example when chemical attachment is done, it ispossible to attach the beads in a non-random or ordered way. Forexample, using photoactivatible attachment linkers or photoactivatibleadhesives or masks, selected sites on the array may be sequentiallyrendered suitable for attachment, such that defined populations of beadsare laid down.

In addition, since the size of the array will be set by the number ofunique optical response signatures, it is possible to “reuse” a set ofunique optical response signatures to allow for a greater number of testsites. This may be done in several ways; for example, by using apositional coding scheme within an array; different sub-bundles mayreuse the set of optical response signatures. Similarly, one embodimentutilizes bead size as a coding modality, thus allowing the reuse of theset of unique optical response signatures for each bead size.Alternatively, sequential partial loading of arrays with beads can alsoallow the reuse of optical response signatures.

In a preferred embodiment, a spatial or positional coding system isdone. In this embodiment, there are sub-bundles or subarrays (i.e.portions of the total array) that are utilized. By analogy with thetelephone system, each sub array is an “area code”, that can have thesame tags (i.e. telephone numbers) of other sub arrays, that areseparated by virtue of the location of the sub array. Thus, for example,the same unique dye/bead combinations can be reused from bundle tobundle. Thus, the use of 50 unique tags in combination with 100different subarrays can form an array of 5000 different bioactiveagents. In this embodiment, it becomes important to be able to identifyone bundle from another; in general, this is done either manually orthrough the use of marker beads, i.e. beads containing unique tags foreach subarray.

In alternative embodiments, additional encoding parameters can be added,such as microsphere size. For example, the use of different size beadsmay also allow the reuse of sets of optical response signatures; thatis, it is possible to use microspheres of different sizes to expand theencoding dimensions of the microspheres. Optical fiber arrays can befabricated containing pixels with different fiber diameters orcross-sections; alternatively, two or more fiber optic bundles, eachwith different cross-sections of the individual fibers, can be addedtogether to form a larger bundle; or, fiber optic bundles with fiber ofthe same size cross-sections can be used, but just with different sizedbeads. With different diameters, the largest wells can be filled withthe largest microspheres and then moving onto progressively smallermicrospheres in the smaller wells until all size wells are then filled.In this manner, the same dye/bead combinations could be used to encodemicrospheres of different sizes thereby expanding the number ofdifferent oligonucleotide sequences or chemical functionalities presentin the array. Although outlined for fiber optic substrates, this as wellas the other methods outlined herein can be used with other substratesand with other attachment modalities as well.

In a preferred embodiment, the coding and decoding is accomplished bysequential loading of the microspheres into the array. As outlined abovefor spatial coding, in this embodiment, the optical response signaturescan be “reused”. In this embodiment, the library of microspheres eachcomprising a different bioactive agent (or the subpopulations eachcomprise a different bioactive agent), is divided into a plurality ofsublibraries; for example, depending on the size of the desired arrayand the number of unique tags, 10 sublibraries each comprising roughly10% of the total library may be made, with each sub library comprisingroughly the same unique tags. Then, the first sublibrary is added to thefiber optic bundle comprising the wells, and the location of eachbioactive agent is determined, using its optical response signature. Thesecond sublibrary is then added, and the location of each opticalresponse signature is again determined. The signal in this case willcomprise the “first” optical response signature and the “second” opticalresponse signature; by comparing the two matrices the location of eachbead in each sublibrary can be determined. Similarly, adding the third,fourth, etc. sublibraries sequentially will allow the array to befilled.

Thus, arrays are made of a large spectrum of chemical functionalitiesutilizing the compositions of invention comprising microspheres andsubstrates with discrete sites on a surface. Specifically, prior artsensors which can be adapted for use in the present invention includefour broad classifications of microsphere sensors: 1) basic indicatorchemistry sensors; 2) enzyme-based sensors; 3) immuno-based sensors(both of which are part of a broader general class of protein sensors);and 4) geno-sensors.

In a preferred embodiment, the bioactive agents are used to detectchemical compounds. A large number of basic indicator sensors have beenpreviously demonstrated. Examples include:

TABLE III Target Analyte Bioactive agent Notes (λ_(AB)/λ_(EM)) pHSensors based seminaphthofluoresceins e.g., carboxyl-SNAFL on:seminaphthorhodafluors e.g., carboxyl-SNARF8-hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonic acid fluorescein CO₂ Sensorsseminaphthofluoresceins e.g., carboxyl-SNAFL based on:seminaphthorhodafluors e.g., carbody-SNARF8-hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonic acid Metal Ions desferriozamine Be.g., Fe Sensors based on: cyclen derivative e.g., Cu, Zn derivatizedpeptides e.g., FITC-Gly-Gly-His, and FITC-Gly His, Cu, Zn fluorexon(calcine) e.g., Ca, Mg, Cu, Pb, Ba calcine blue e.g., Ca, Mg, Cu methylcalcine blue e.g., Ca, Mg, Cu ortho-dianisidine tetracetic acid e.g., Zn(ODTA) bis-salicylidene ethylenediamine (SED) e.g., AlN-(6-methozy-8-quinolyl-p- e.g., Zn toluenesulfonamine) (TSQ) Indo-1e.g., Mn, Ni Fura-2 e.g., Mn, Ni Magesium Green e.g., Mg, Cd, Tb O₂Siphenylisobenzofuran 409/476 Methoxyvinyl pyrene 352/401 Nitritediaminonaphthalene 340/377 NO luminol 355/411 dihydrohodamine 289/noneCa²⁺ Bis-fura 340/380 Calcium Green visible light/530 Fura-2 340/380Indo-1 405/485 Fluo-3 visible light/525 Rhod-2 visible light/570 Mg²⁺Mag-Fura-2 340/380 Mag-Fura-5 340/380 Mag-Indo-1 405/485 Magnesium Green475/530 Magnesium Orange visible light/545 Zn²⁺ Newport Green 506/535TSQ Methoxy-Quinobyl 334/385 Cu⁺ Phen Green 492/517 Na⁺ SBFI 339/565SBFO 354/575 Sodium Green 506/535 K⁺ PBFI 336/557 Cl⁻ SPQ 344/443 MQAE350/460

Each of the chemicals listed in Table III directly produces an opticallyinterrogatable signal or a change in the optical signature, as is morefully outlined below, in the presence of the targeted analyte.

Enzyme-based microsphere sensors have also been demonstrated and couldbe manifest on microspheres. Examples include:

TABLE IV SENSOR TARGET Bioactive agent Glucose Sensor glucose oxidase(enz.) + O₂-sensitive dye (see Table I) Penicillin Sensor peniciliinase(enz.) + pH-sensitive dye (see Table I) Urea Sensor urease (enz.) +pH-sensitive dye (see Table I) Acetylcholine Sensor acetylcholinesterase(enz.) + pH-sensitive dye (see Table I)

Generally, as more fully outlined above, the induced change in theoptical signal upon binding of the target analyte due to the presence ofthe enzyme-sensitive chemical analyte occurs indirectly in this class ofchemical functionalities. The microsphere-bound enzyme, e.g., glucoseoxidase, decomposes the target analyte, e.g., glucose, consume aco-substrate, e.g., oxygen, or produce some by-product, e.g., hydrogenperoxide. An oxygen sensitive dye is then used to trigger the signalchange.

Immuno-based microsphere sensors have been demonstrated for thedetection for environmental pollutants such as pesticides, herbicides,PCB's and PAH's. Additionally, these sensors have also been used fordiagnostics, such as bacterial (e.g., leprosy, cholera, lyme disease,and tuberculosis), viral (e.g., HIV, herpes simplex, cytomegalovirus),fungal (e.g., aspergillosis, candidiasis, cryptococcoses), Mycoplasmal(e.g., mycoplasmal pneumonia), Protozoal (e.g., amoebiasis,toxoplasmosis), Rickettsial (e.g., Rocky Mountain spotted fever), andpregnancy tests.

Microsphere genosensors may also be made. These are typicallyconstructed by attaching a probe sequence to the microsphere surfacechemistry, typically via an NH₂ group. A fluorescent dye molecule, e.g.,fluorescein, is attached to the target sequence, which is in solution.The optically interrogatable signal change occurs with the binding ofthe target sequences to the microsphere. This produces a higherconcentration of dye surrounding the microsphere than in the solutiongenerally. A few demonstrated probe and target sequences, see Ferguson,J. A. et al. Nature Biotechnology, Vol. 14, December 1996, are listedbelow in Table V.

TABLE V PROBE SEQUENCES TARGET SEQUENCESB-glo(+) (segment of human B-globin) 5′- B-glo(+)-CFNH₂-(CH₂)₈-)TT TTT TTT TCA ACT TCA 5′-Fluorescein-TC AAC GTG GAT GAATCC ACG TTC ACC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 1) GTT C-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6)IFNG (interferon gamma 1) 5′-NH₂-(CH₂)₈- IFNG-CFT₁₂-TGG CTT CTC TTG GCT GTT ACT-3' 5′-Fluorescein-AG TAA CAG CCA AGA(SEQ ID NO: 2) GAA CCC AAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7)IL2 (interleukin-2) 5′-NH₂-(CH₂)₈-T₁₂-TA IL2-CFACC GAA TCC CAA ACT CAC CAG-3′ 5′-Fluorescein-CT GGT GAG TTT GGG(SEQ ID NO: 3) ATT CTT GTA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8)IL4 (interleukin-4) 5′-NH₂-(CH₂)₈-T₁₂-CC IL4-CFAAC TGC TTC CCC CTC TGT-3′ (SEQ ID 5′-Fluorescein-AC AGA GGG GGA AGCNO: 4) AGT TGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 9)IL6 (interleukin-6) 5′-NH₂-(CH₂)₈-T₁₂-GT IL6-CFTGG GTC AGG GGT GGT TAT T-3′ (SEQ 5′-Fluorescein-AA TAA CCA CCC CTGID NO: 5) ACC CAA C-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10)

It should be further noted that the genosensors can be based on the useof hybridization indicators as the labels. Hybridization indicatorspreferentially associate with double stranded nucleic acid, usuallyreversibly. Hybridization indicators include intercalators and minorand/or major groove binding moieties. In a preferred embodiment,intercalators may be used; since intercalation generally only occurs inthe presence of double stranded nucleic acid, only in the presence oftarget hybridization will the label light up.

The present invention may be used with any or all of these types ofsensors. As will be appreciated by those in the art, the type andcomposition of the sensor will vary widely, depending on the compositionof the target analyte. That is, sensors may be made to detect nucleicacids, proteins (including enzyme sensors and immunosensors), lipids,carbohydrates, etc; similarly, these sensors may include bioactiveagents that are nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, etc. Inaddition, a single array sensor may contain different binding ligandsfor multiple types of analytes; for example, an array sensor for HIV maycontain multiple nucleic acid probes for direct detection of the viralgenome, protein binding ligands for direct detection of the viralparticle, immuno-components for the detection of anti-HIV antibodies,etc.

In addition to the beads and the substrate, the compositions of theinvention may include other components, such as light sources, opticalcomponents such as lenses and filters, detectors, computer componentsfor data analysis, etc.

The arrays of the present invention are constructed such thatinformation about the identity of the bioactive agent is built into thearray, such that the random deposition of the beads on the surface ofthe substrate can be “decoded” to allow identification of the bioactiveagent at all positions. This may be done in a variety of ways.

In a preferred embodiment, the beads are loaded onto the substrate andthen the array is decoded, prior to running the assay. This is done bydetecting the optical response signature associated with the bead ateach site on the array upon exposure to a reference analyte. This may bedone all at once, if unique optical signatures are used, orsequentially, as is generally outlined above for the “reuse” of sets ofoptical signatures. Alternatively, full or partial decoding may occurafter the assay is run.

Once made and decoded if necessary, the compositions find use in anumber of applications. As a preliminary matter, the invention finds usein methods for reducing the signal-to-noise ratio in the characteristicoptical response signature of a sensor array having a subpopulations ofarray elements. The methods comprise a) decoding the array so as toidentify the location of each sensor element within each sensorsubpopulation within the array; b) measuring the characteristic opticalresponse signature of each sensor element in the array; c) adjusting thebaseline of the optical response signature for each sensor element inthe array; d) summing the baseline-adjusted characteristic opticalresponse signature of all sensor elements within each of the sensorsubpopulations; and e) reporting the characteristic optical responsesignature of each sensor subpopulation as a summation of thebaseline-adjusted characteristic optical response signatures of allsensor elements within each of the subpopulations. This can result in anincrease in the signal-to-noise ratio by a factor of at least about ten,with at least about 100 being preferred.

Similarly, the invention provides methods for amplifying thecharacteristic optical response signature of a sensor array havingsubpopulations of array elements, comprising: a) decoding the array soas to identify the, location of each sensor element within each sensorsubpopulation within the array; b) measuring a characteristic opticalresponse signature of each sensor element in the array; c) optionallyadjusting the baseline of the optical response signature for each sensorelement in the array; d) summing the baseline-adjusted characteristicoptical response signature of all sensor elements within each of thesensor subpopulations; and e) reporting the characteristic opticalresponse signature of each sensor subpopulation as a summation of thebaseline-adjusted characteristic optical response signatures of allsensor elements within each of the subpopulations. In a preferredembodiment, the signal is amplified by a factor of at least about fiftyand an analyte detection limit is reduced by a factor of at least about100.

Generally, a sample containing a target analyte (whether for detectionof the target analyte or screening for binding partners of the targetanalyte) is added to the array, under conditions suitable for binding ofthe target analyte to at least one of the bioactive agents, i.e.generally physiological conditions. The presence or absence of thetarget analyte is then detected. As will be appreciated by those in theart, this may be done in a variety of ways, generally through the use ofa change in an optical signal. This change can occur via many differentmechanisms. A few examples include the binding of a dye-tagged analyteto the bead, the production of a dye species on or near the beads, thedestruction of an existing dye species, a change in the opticalsignature upon analyte interaction with dye on bead, or any otheroptical interrogatable event.

In a preferred embodiment, the change in optical signal occurs as aresult of the binding of a target analyte that is labeled, eitherdirectly or indirectly, with a detectable label, preferably an opticallabel such as a fluorochrome. Thus, for example, when a proteinaceoustarget analyte is used, it may be either directly labeled with a fluor,or indirectly, for example through the use of a labeled antibody.Similarly, nucleic acids are easily labeled with fluorochromes, forexample during PCR amplification as is known in the art. Alternatively,upon binding of the target sequences, an intercalating dye (e.g.,ethidium bromide) can be added subsequently to signal the presence ofthe bound target to the probe sequence. Upon binding of the targetanalyte to a bioactive agent, there is a new optical signal generated atthat site, which then may be detected.

Alternatively, in some cases, as discussed above, the target analytesuch as an enzyme generates a species (for example, a fluorescentproduct) that is either directly or indirectly detectable optically.

Furthermore, in some embodiments, a change in the optical responsesignature may be the basis of the optical signal. For example, theinteraction of some chemical target analytes with some fluorescent dyeson the beads may alter the optical response signature, thus generating adifferent optical signal. For example, fluorophore derivatized receptorsmay be used in which the binding of the ligand alters the signal.

As will be appreciated by those in the art, in some embodiments, thepresence or absence of the target analyte may be done using changes inother optical or non-optical signals, including, but not limited to,surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy, surface plasmon resonance,radioactivity, etc.

The assays may be run under a variety of experimental conditions, aswill be appreciated by those in the art. A variety of other reagents maybe included in the screening assays. These include reagents like salts,neutral proteins, e.g. albumin, detergents, etc which may be used tofacilitate optimal protein-protein binding and/or reduce non-specific orbackground interactions. Also reagents that otherwise improve theefficiency of the assay, such as protease inhibitors, nucleaseinhibitors, anti-microbial agents, etc., may be used. The mixture ofcomponents may be added in any order that provides for the requisitebinding. Various blocking and washing steps may be utilized as is knownin the art.

In a preferred embodiment, the compositions are used to probe a samplesolution for the presence or absence of a target analyte. By “targetanalyte” or “analyte” or grammatical equivalents herein is meant anyatom, molecule, ion, molecular ion, compound or particle to be eitherdetected or evaluated for binding partners. As will be appreciated bythose in the art, a large number of analytes may be used in the presentinvention; basically, any target analyte can be used which binds abioactive agent or for which a binding partner (i.e. drug candidate) issought.

Suitable analytes include organic and inorganic molecules, includingbiomolecules. When detection of a target analyte is done, suitabletarget analytes include, but are not limited to, an environmentalpollutant (including pesticides, insecticides, toxins, etc.); a chemical(including solvents, polymers, organic materials, etc.); therapeuticmolecules (including therapeutic and abused drugs, antibiotics, etc.);biomolecules (including hormones, cytokines, proteins, nucleic acids,lipids, carbohydrates, cellular membrane antigens and receptors (neural,hormonal, nutrient, and cell surface receptors) or their ligands, etc);whole cells (including procaryotic (such as pathogenic bacteria) andeukaryotic cells, including mammalian tumor cells); viruses (includingretroviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses, lentiviruses, etc.); andspores; etc. Particularly preferred analytes are nucleic acids andproteins.

In a preferred embodiment, the target analyte is a protein. As will beappreciated by those in the art, there are a large number of possibleproteinaceous target analytes that may be detected or evaluated forbinding partners using the present invention. Suitable protein targetanalytes include, but are not limited to, (1) immunoglobulins; (2)enzymes (and other proteins); (3) hormones and cytokines (many of whichserve as ligands for cellular receptors); and (4) other proteins.

In a preferred embodiment, the target analyte is a nucleic acid. Theseassays find use in a wide variety of applications.

In a preferred embodiment, the probes are used in genetic diagnosis. Forexample, probes can be made using the techniques disclosed herein todetect target sequences such as the gene for nonpolyposis colon cancer,the BRCAI breast cancer gene, P53, which is a gene associated with avariety of cancers, the Apo E4 gene that indicates a greater risk ofAlzheimer's disease, allowing for easy presymptomatic screening ofpatients, mutations in the cystic fibrosis gene, or any of the otherswell known in the art.

In an additional embodiment, viral and bacterial detection is done usingthe complexes of the invention. In this embodiment, probes are designedto detect target sequences from a variety of bacteria and viruses. Forexample, current blood-screening techniques rely on the detection ofanti-HIV antibodies. The methods disclosed herein allow for directscreening of clinical samples to detect HIV nucleic acid sequences,particularly highly conserved HIV sequences. In addition, this allowsdirect monitoring of circulating virus within a patient as an improvedmethod of assessing the efficacy of anti-viral therapies. Similarly,viruses associated with leukemia, HTLV-I and HTLV-II, may be detected inthis way. Bacterial infections such as tuberculosis, clymidia and othersexually transmitted diseases, may also be detected.

In a preferred embodiment, the nucleic acids of the invention find useas probes for toxic bacteria in the screening of water and food samples.For example, samples may be treated to lyse the bacteria to release itsnucleic acid, and then probes designed to recognize bacterial strains,including, but not limited to, such pathogenic strains as, Salmonella,Campylobacter, Vibrio cholerae, Leishmania, enterotoxic strains of E.coli, and Legionnaire's disease bacteria. Similarly, bioremediationstrategies may be evaluated using the compositions of the invention.

In a further embodiment, the probes are used for forensic “DNAfingerprinting” to match crime-scene DNA against samples taken fromvictims and suspects.

In an additional embodiment, the probes in an array are used forsequencing by hybridization.

The present invention also finds use as a methodology for the detectionof mutations or mismatches in target nucleic acid sequences. Forexample, recent focus has been on the analysis of the relationshipbetween genetic variation and phenotype by making use of polymorphic DNAmarkers. Previous work utilized short tandem repeats (STRs) aspolymorphic positional markers; however, recent focus is on the use ofsingle nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which occur at an averagefrequency of more than 1 per kilobase in human genomic DNA. Some SNPs,particularly those in and around coding sequences, are likely to be thedirect cause of therapeutically relevant phenotypic variants. There area number of well known polymorphisms that cause clinically importantphenotypes; for example, the apoE2/3/4 variants are associated withdifferent relative risk of Alzheimer's and other diseases (see Cordor etal., Science 261 (1993). Multiplex PCR amplification of SNP loci withsubsequent hybridization to oligonucleotide arrays has been shown to bean accurate and reliable method of simultaneously genotyping at leasthundreds of SNPs; see Wang et al., Science, 280: 1077 (1998); see alsoSchafer et al., Nature Biotechnology 16:33-39 (1998). The compositionsof the present invention may easily be substituted for the arrays of theprior art.

In a preferred embodiment, the compositions of the invention are used toscreen bioactive agents to find an agent that will bind, and preferablymodify the function of, a target molecule. As above, a wide variety ofdifferent assay formats may be run, as will be appreciated by those inthe art. Generally, the target analyte for which a binding partner isdesired is labeled; binding of the target analyte by the bioactive agentresults in the recruitment of the label to the bead, with subsequentdetection.

In a preferred embodiment, the binding of the bioactive agent and thetarget analyte is specific; that is, the bioactive agent specificallybinds to the target analyte. By “specifically bind” herein is meant thatthe agent binds the analyte, with specificity sufficient todifferentiate between the analyte and other components or contaminantsof the test sample. However, as will be appreciated by those in the art,it will be possible to detect analytes using binding which is not highlyspecific; for example, the systems may use different binding ligands,for example an array of different ligands, and detection of anyparticular analyte is via its “signature” of binding to a panel ofbinding ligands, similar to the manner in which “electronic noses” work.This finds particular utility in the detection of chemical analytes. Thebinding should be sufficient to remain bound under the conditions of theassay, including wash steps to remove non-specific binding, although insome embodiments, wash steps are not desired; i.e. for detecting lowaffinity binding partners. In some embodiments, for example in thedetection of certain biomolecules, the dissociation constants of theanalyte to the binding ligand will be less than about 10⁻⁴-10⁻⁶ M⁻¹,with less than about 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻⁹ M⁻¹ being preferred and less thanabout 10⁻⁷-10⁻⁹ M⁻¹ being particularly preferred.

The following examples serve to more fully describe the manner of usingthe above-described invention, as well as to set forth the best modescontemplated for carrying out various aspects of the invention. It isunderstood that these examples in no way serve to limit the true scopeof this invention, but rather are presented for illustrative purposes.All references cited herein are incorporated by reference in theirentirety.

EXAMPLES

Characteristic temporal optical response data measurements of sensorbead and sensor array response to specific vapor analytes and excitationlight energy were made according to the established method andinstrumentation disclosed by White, et al., Anal. Chem. 68:2191-2202(1996). In FIG. 8, a schematic diagram illustrates the experimentalapparatus and instrumentation used for the data measurements reported inExamples 7 through 17.

In a typical measurement, the proximal end 214 of a fiber optic bundle202 was placed into a fiber chuck 300 and secured for viewing with anOlympus microscope-based imaging system. In other embodiments, aconventional Olympus microscope slide platform and slide clamp was usedfor positioning alternative sensor array substrates, such as glass coverslips. An Olympus microscope 320 equipped with an epi-illuminator wasutilized for optical measurements. The microscope 320 was equipped withOlympus 20× and 40× and Zeiss 100× objectives. An Omega 560 DCRPdichroic mirror 330 was used to direct filtered exitation light energyfrom a 75 W Xenon arc lamp 340 to the sensor array 100 and to permit theemitted light energy, due to the characteristic optical responsesignature originating from each of the sensor beads 10 in the sensorarray 100, to be recorded by a CCD frame transfer camera 310. Theexcitation light energy emanating from the arc lamp 340 was filtered byan Omega 535 BP40 integrated excitation light filter/shutter 350. Theemission light energy which emitted from the sensor beads 10 of thesensor array 100 was filtered with an Omega 640 BP20 integrated emittedlight filter/shutter 360 prior to the CCD frame transfer camera 310.

Experiments generally consist of collecting video camera frames offluorescence response images of the characteristic optical responsesignatures of individual sensor beads in the sensor array 100 conveyedby the fiber optic bundle 202 to its proximal end 214. The bead andarray images are recorded with a CCD frame transfer camera 310 (ModelTE512EFT from Princeton Instruments, Trenton, N.J.). A preselectednumber of image frames are captured and sent to a computer system 400,comprising a Princeton Instruments NUBus camera interface card installedin a 8100AV Macintosh Power PC. Camera frame rates can be set at anydesired value and typically range between 80 to 250 ms/frame. Thefollowing is a list of frame rates (time between data points) used inacquiring the data shown in for FIGS. 9-16. The specified frame ratecorresponds to a specific time interval between data points.

FIG. Rate (ms/frame) Total No. of Frames FIG. 9 135 30 FIG. 10 183.3 60FIG. 11 103.3 60 FIG. 12 190.6 60 FIG. 13 133 60 FIG. 14 155 60 FIG. 15155 60 FIG. 16 124 60

A conventional air dilution olfactometer and vacuum-controlled vapordelivery system 500, as commonly known and used in olfactory researchand described in Kauer, et al., J. Physiol. 272:495-516 (1977), was usedto apply controlled pulses of analyte vapor and air carrier gas toeither a sensor bead substrate or the distal end 212 of a fiber opticsensor array 100 containing an array of sensor beads 10 immobilized inmicrowells 250.

To produce a saturated vapor sample, generally, a stream of air carriergas is passed through a 5 ml cartridge containing filter paper saturatedwith the analyte. Analyte dilutions are produced by adjusting therelative flow rates of saturated vapor and clean carrier gas streams.Typically, a flow rate of 100 ml/min is used for the combined gas flowto the sensor array. At this flow rate, a 2 second pulse would deliverapproximately 3.3 ml of analyte vapor with carrier gas. In generally,depending on the analyte vapor pressure and dilution factor, vaporpulses contain between 10⁻⁷ to 10⁻⁵ mol of analyte.

The vapor pulse was typically delivered during the 11^(th) through30^(th) frame, commencing on the 11^(th) frame. The duration of thevapor pulse varied with the specific frame rate utilized and typicallyranged between 2 to 3 seconds. Baseline control measurements wereperformed with high purity, Ultra Zero grade air. The air pulsemeasurements were performed to account for any bead responses due to thevapor carrier gas.

Data Processing: Following the collection of a temporal series of sensorbead or sensor array images, segments are drawn, using IPLab imageprocessing software (Signal Analytics, Vienna, Va.), over each pixelwhich corresponds to an individual fiber where the fiber is coupled toone sensor bead at its distal end. The mean fluorescence intensity wasmeasured for each one of these segments in each frame in the sequence.This is done for both the vapor pulse responses and the baseline airpulse responses. Averages of multiple runs of each may be performed toimprove data quality where needed. The air pulse data is then subtractedfrom the vapor pulse data to subtract the background due to air alone.The resulting data can be plotted to yield temporal intensity responsesfor all beads of interest. In a preferred embodiment, the sensor arraydata are used in a neural network analysis according to the methoddisclosed in White, et al, Anal. Chem. 68:2193-2202 (1996).

All data manipulation is performed within the IPLab program environmentusing simple operator scripts that call standardized image or dataprocessing routines included with the software. These scripts androutines consist of a data collection portion and a data analysisportion.

In the data collection portion, there are three segments or loops asfollows:

Loop 1. This establishes the baseline fluorescence of each sensor. Thisloop can be shortened or extended to adjust to slower or faster responsetimes of specific sensor beads or sensor arrays to certain analytes. ForExamples 7 through 17, this loop was set between 5 to 10 frames.

Loop 2. This is the vapor exposure loop. A vapor pulse is applied justbefore this loop starts by way of a script command that sends a 5 voltpulse to an attached solenoid valve which switches a vacuum line off,thereby allowing a vapor sample to emit from the end of a nozzle.Typically, this loop is 20 frames in duration. In Example 7, a 10 frameduration was utilized.

Loop 3. This is a sensor recovery loop. Another 5 volt trigger pulse issent to a solenoid which switches back to its initial position, causingthe vacuum system to resume collection of the solvent vapor and carry itoff to waste. Typically, this loop is of 30 frames duration. In Example7, a 15 frame duration was utilized.

Data Analysis: In the data analysis portion, pre-selected segments takenfrom a previously collected “focus” image are transferred to thesequence of images collected. These segments, drawn by the user, allowthe mean pixel intensity to be measured in particular regions throughoutthe image field. Typically, they are drawn over individual pixels of afiber optic sensor array, each of which contains a bead. The script thenenters a loop that steps through each frame, measuring the mean pixelintensity within each segment, and placing the values in data columns.The resulting columns can then be plotted to yield the temporal responseof each bead of interest. Before plotting, however, responses are“standardized” by dividing the data for each bead response by its firstpoint. Thus, all responses can be normalized to start at a value of 1.0.

Redundancy: As shown in the Examples, the present invention shows thatbuilding redundancy into an array gives several significant advantages,including the ability to make quantitative estimates of confidence aboutthe data and significant increases in sensitivity.

Thus, preferred embodiments utilize array redundancy. As will beappreciated by those in the art, there are at least two types ofredundancy that can be built into an array: the use of multipleidentical sensor elements (termed herein “sensor redundancy”), and theuse of multiple sensor elements directed to the same target analyte, butcomprising different chemical functionalities (termed herein “targetredundancy”). For example, for the detection of nucleic acids, sensorredundancy utilizes of a plurality of sensor elements such as beadscomprising identical binding ligands such as probes. Target redundancyutilizes sensor elements with different probes to the same target: oneprobe may span the first 25 bases of the target, a second probe may spanthe second 25 bases of the target, etc. By building in either or both ofthese types of redundancy into an array, significant benefits areobtained. For example, a variety of statistical mathematical analysesmay be done.

In addition, while this is generally described herein for bead arrays,as will be appreciated by those in the art, this techniques can be usedfor any type of arrays designed to detect target analytes. Furthermore,while these techniques are generally described for nucleic acid systems,these techniques are useful in the detection of other bindingligand/target analyte systems as well.

Bead Response Summing: In a preferred embodiment, sensor redundancy isused. In this embodiment, a plurality of sensor elements, e.g. beads,comprising identical bioactive agents are used. That is, eachsubpopulation comprises a plurality of beads comprising identicalbioactive agents (e.g. binding ligands). By using a number of identicalsensor elements for a given array, the optical signal from each sensorelement can be combined and any number of statistical analyses run, asoutlined below. This can be done for a variety of reasons. For example,in time varying measurements, redundancy can significantly reduce thenoise in the system. For non-time based measurements, redundancy cansignificantly increase the confidence of the data.

In a preferred embodiment, a plurality of identical sensor elements areused. As will be appreciated by those in the art, the number ofidentical sensor elements will vary with the application and use of thesensor array. In general, anywhere from 2 to thousands may be used, withfrom 2 to 100 being preferred, 2 to 50 being particularly preferred andfrom 5 to 20 being especially preferred. In general, preliminary resultsindicate that roughly 10 beads gives a sufficient advantage, althoughfor some applications, more identical sensor elements can be used.

Once obtained, the optical response signals from a plurality of sensorbeads within each bead subpopulation can be manipulated and analyzed ina wide variety of ways, including baseline adjustment, averaging,standard deviation analysis, distribution and cluster analysis,confidence interval analysis, mean testing, etc.

In a preferred embodiment, the first manipulation of the opticalresponse signals is an optional baseline adjustment. In a typicalprocedure, the standardized optical responses are adjusted to start at avalue of 0.0 by subtracting the integer 1.0 from all data points. Doingthis allows the baseline-loop data to remain at zero even when summedtogether and the random response signal noise is canceled out. When thesample is a vapor, the vapor pulse-loop temporal region, however,frequently exhibits a characteristic change in response, eitherpositive, negative or neutral, prior to the vapor pulse and oftenrequires a baseline adjustment to overcome noise associated with driftin the first few data points due to charge buildup in the CCD camera. Ifno drift is present, typically the baseline from the first data pointfor each bead sensor is subtracted from all the response data for thesame bead. If drift is observed, the average baseline from the first tendata points for each bead sensor is subtracted from the all the responsedata for the same bead. By applying this baseline adjustment, whenmultiple bead responses are added together they can be amplified whilethe baseline remains at zero. Since all beads respond at the same timeto the sample (e.g. the vapor. pulse), they all see the pulse at theexact same time and there is no registering or adjusting needed foroverlaying their responses. In addition, other types of baselineadjustment may be done, depending on the requirements and output of thesystem used.

Once the baseline has been adjusted, a number of possible statisticalanalyses may be run to generate known statistical parameters. Analysesbased on redundancy are known and generally described in texts such asFreund and Walpole, Mathematical Statistics, Prentice Hall, Inc. NewJersey, 1980, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

In a preferred embodiment, signal summing is done by simply adding theintensity values of all responses at each time point, generating a newtemporal response comprised of the sum of all bead responses. Thesevalues can be baseline-adjusted or raw. As for all the analysesdescribed herein, signal summing can be performed in real time or duringpost-data acquisition data reduction and analysis. In one embodiment,signal summing is performed with a commercial spreadsheet program(Excel, Microsoft, Redmond, W A) after optical response data iscollected.

In a preferred embodiment, cumulative response data is generated bysimply adding all data points in successive time intervals. This finalcolumn, comprised of the sum of all data points at a particular timeinterval, may then be compared or plotted with the individual beadresponses to determine the extent of signal enhancement or improvedsignal-to-noise ratios as shown in FIGS. 14 and 15.

In a preferred embodiment, the mean of the subpopulation (i.e. theplurality of identical beads) is determined, using the well knownEquation 1:

$\begin{matrix}{\mu = {\Sigma\frac{x_{i}}{n}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 1}\end{matrix}$

In some embodiments, the subpopulation may be redefined to exclude somebeads if necessary (for example for obvious outliers, as discussedbelow).

In a preferred embodiment, the standard deviation of the subpopulationcan be determined, generally using Equation 2 (for the entiresubpopulation) and Equation 3 (for less than the entire subpopulation):

$\begin{matrix}{\sigma = \sqrt{\frac{{\Sigma\left( {x_{i} - \mu} \right)}^{2}}{n}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 2} \\{s = \sqrt{\frac{{\Sigma\left( {x_{i} - \overset{\_}{x}} \right)}^{2}}{n - 1}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 3}\end{matrix}$

As for the mean, the subpopulation may be redefined to exclude somebeads if necessary (for example for obvious outliers, as discussedbelow).

In a preferred embodiment, statistical analyses are done to evaluatewhether a particular data point has statistical validity within asubpopulation by using techniques including, but not limited to, tdistribution and cluster analysis. This may be done to statisticallydiscard outliers that may otherwise skew the result and increase thesignal-to-noise ratio of any particular experiment. This may be doneusing Equation 4:

$\begin{matrix}{t = \frac{\overset{\_}{x} - \mu}{s\text{/}\sqrt{n}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 4}\end{matrix}$

In a preferred embodiment, the quality of the data is evaluated usingconfidence intervals, as is known in the art. Confidence intervals canbe used to facilitate more comprehensive data processing to measure thestatistical validity of a result.

In a preferred embodiment, statistical parameters of a subpopulation ofbeads are used to do hypothesis testing. One application is testsconcerning means, also called mean testing. In this application,statistical evaluation is done to determine whether two subpopulationsare different. For example, one sample could be compared with anothersample for each subpopulation within an array to determine if thevariation is statistically significant.

In addition, mean testing can also be used to differentiate twodifferent assays that share the same code. If the two assays giveresults that are statistically distinct from each other, then thesubpopulations that share a common code can be distinguished from eachother on the basis of the assay and the mean test, shown below inEquation 5:

$\begin{matrix}{z = \frac{\overset{\_}{x_{1}} - \overset{\_}{x_{2}}}{\sqrt{\frac{\sigma_{1}^{2}}{n_{1}} + \frac{\sigma_{2}^{2}}{n_{2}}}}} & {{Equation}\mspace{14mu} 5}\end{matrix}$

Furthermore, analyzing the distribution of individual members of asubpopulation of sensor elements may be done. For example, asubpopulation distribution can be evaluated to determine whether thedistribution is binomial, Poisson, hypergeometric, etc.

Target Redundancy: In addition to the sensor redundancy, a preferredembodiment utilizes a plurality of sensor elements that are directed toa single target analyte but yet are not identical. For example, a singletarget nucleic acid analyte may have two or more sensor elements eachcomprising a different probe. This adds a level of confidence asnon-specific binding interactions can be statistically minimized. Whennucleic acid target analytes are to be evaluated, the redundant nucleicacid probes may be overlapping, adjacent, or spatially separated.However, it is preferred that two probes do not compete for a singlebinding site, so adjacent or separated probes are preferred. Similarly,when proteinaceous target analytes are to be evaluated, preferredembodiments utilize bioactive agent binding agents that bind todifferent parts of the target. For example, when antibodies (or antibodyfragments) are used as bioactive agents for the binding of targetproteins, preferred embodiments utilize antibodies to differentepitopes.

In this embodiment, a plurality of different sensor elements may beused, with from about 2 to about 20 being preferred, and from about 2 toabout 10 being especially preferred, and from 2 to about 5 beingparticularly preferred, including 2, 3, 4 or 5. However, as above, moremay also be used, depending on the application.

As above, any number of statistical analyses may be run on the data fromtarget redundant sensors.

One benefit of the sensor element summing (referred to herein as “beadsumming” when beads are used), is the increase in sensitivity that canoccur. As shown in Example 19, detection limits in the zeptomole rangecan be observed.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Preparation of porous silica/Nile Red beads: Approximately 0.5 cm³ ofnominally 3.2 micron diameter commercial porous silica beads wereremoved from a LUNA column (Phenomenex, Torrance, Calif.). Sample ofbeads were placed onto a filter paper and, using vacuum filtration, 0.5mL of Nile Red (Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.) solution (1 mg/mL intoluene) was poured over beads. Nile Red was immediately taken up bysilica beads, turning them a deep purple color. The beads were washedrepeatedly with toluene to remove any excess, non-adsorbed Nile Red. Thebeads were dried on a watch glass overnight. Beads were then placed intomicrowells formed by etching a fiber optic bundle according to themethod of the present invention.

Example 2

Preparation of PDPO polymer coated porous silica beads: A silanizingsolution was prepared from 20 μL N-octadecyl-triethyoxysilane in 980 μLof ethanol/water (95% ethanol, 5% ultrapure water with pH adjusted to4.9 with acetic acid). The LUNA porous silica beads of Example 1 weredispersed in an excess of silanizing solution for approximately 10minutes, vortexing continuously. The particles were rinsed three timeswith ethanol and dried in a 120° C. oven, overnight for approximately 12hours.

Stock solution of PDPO, poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide),(Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) and Nile Red was prepared from 0.09 g PDPOand 1.0 mL chloroform. After complete dissolution of the polymer, a 100μL aliquot of 1 mg/mL nile red in chloroform was added. The resultantsolution was vortexed continuously for uniform dispersion.

Excess PDPO/Nile Red was added to a small fraction of the silanizedporous beads, approximately 100 μL polymer/dye solution to approximately1 mg of beads. The sample was vortexed for approximately 3 hours thenwashed. Excess polymer dye was removed and the beads were then washedrepeatedly with methylene chloride, two to three times, followed by awashing with 0.01% polyoxyethylene-sorbitan monolaurate, Tween 20 (J. T.Baker, Cleveland, Ohio), in water. The washed beads were collected in asolution of 0.01% Tween 20/ultrapure water. A single, small drop wasplaced on a microscope coverslip and allowed to dry protected fromlight.

Example 3

Preparation of non-porous silica/nile Red Beads coated with polysiloxanepolymer: Commercially available non-porous 3.1 μm silica beads (BangsLaboratory, Fishers, Ind.) were first silanized in excess silanizingsolution, a 10% solution by volume of 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propylmethacrylate (Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.) in acetone, overnight. Excesssilanizing solution was decanted and the beads were rinsed repeatedly,two to three times, with ultrapure acetone, vortexing and centrifugingbetween washes. The beads were soaked in excess Nile Red solution (1mg/ml in toluene) for approximately 3 hours while vortexing so as tofully saturate the surface. The bead solution was centrifuged and excessdye solution was decanted. A mixture of 7.9 mg benzoin ethyl ether(Polysciences Inc., Warrington, Pa.), 250 microliters stock Nile Red intoluene and 250 microliters (15-20% acryloxypropyl-methylsiloxane)80-85% dimethylsiloxane copolymer (Gelest Inc., Tullytown Pa.) were thenadded to the beads. The bead suspension was vortexed to uniformly coatthe particles. The resultant suspension mixture was added dropwise toapproximately 100 mL 0.1% Tween 20 in ultrapure water stirring atapproximately 350 rpm. Polymerization was accomplished by ultravioletexcitation for 10 second durations for a total exposure of 30 seconds.The sample solution was stirred over night. The suspension was passedthrough a 230 micron sieve, followed by a 5 μm sieve. The filtrate wascentrifuged at 3000 rpm for approximately 5 minutes and the beads werecollected into centrifuge tubes and washed with 0.01% Tween 20 inultrapure water. A single small drop was placed on a microscopecoverslip and allowed to dry protected from light.

Example 4

Preparation of (15-20% acryloxypropylmethylsiloxane) 80-85%dimethylsiloxane copolymer beads with nile red: Approximately 25 mL ofultrapure water plus 25 mL ethanol were placed in a 100 mL round bottomflask and stirred with a stirbar at approximately 350 rpm. A mixture of500 μL (15-20% acryloxypropylmethylsiloxane) 80-85% dimethylsiloxanecopolymer, 200 μL Nile Red solution (1 mg/ml in chloroform) and 250 μLmethylene chloride was made and added dropwise to the stirredwater/ethanol solution. A solution of 5.5 mg AIBN, N,N′-azobis-isobutylnitrile (2,2′-azobis-2-methylproprio-nitrile) (Phaltz & Bauer, Inc.), inmethylene chloride was added to the stirring dispersion. The mixture wasdegassed with argon for approximately one hour and then heated toapproximately 70 degrees celcius. After approximately three hours ofheating, 20 mL of 0.01% Tween 20 in ultrapure water was added to themixture. Heating and stirring was continued for approximately 12 hours.The mixture was passed through 230 micron sieve, then solids collectedfrom centrifugation at up to 5000 rpm. The solids were washed twice withmethanol and then washed with 0.01% Tween 20 in ultrapure water. Theresultant beads were collected in a solution of 0.01% Tween 20 inultrapure water. A single drop of the bead suspension was placed on amicroscope coverslip and allowed to dry protected from light.

Example 5

Nile red dyed poly(methylstyrene/divinyl benzene) beads: Approximately 1mg of commercially available 3.15 μm polymer beads, 87% methyl styrene,13% divinyl benzene with amine functionalized surface (BangsLaboratories, Fishers, Ind.), was washed in 1 ml of methanol byvortexing, centrifuging at approximately 3000 rpm and decanting thesolvent. The beads were transferred to brown vial and approximately 100μL of Nile Red solution (1 mg/ml in toluene) was added. The sample wasvortexed and placed on a wrist shaker to agitate overnight. Thesuspension was transferred to a micro centrifuge tube and washed withmethanol until the decanted solvent was clear. The beads were collectedin approximately 0.5 mL of a solution of 0.01% Tween 20 in ultrapurewater. A single drop placed on a microscope coverslip and allowed to dryprotected from light.

Example 6

Plasticizer modified poly(methylstyrene/divinyl benzene) beads with nilered incorporated: Approximately 1 mg of commercially available 3.15 μmpolymer beads, 87% methyl styrene, 13% divinyl benzene with aminefunctionalized surface (Bangs Laboratories, Fishers, Ind.), were rinsedwith methanol according to Example 5 and transferred to a brown vial.Approximately 2-40% by wt plasticizer to polymer solutions ofplasticizers, tritolyl phosphate (TTP), triphenyl phosphate (TPP), anddibutyl phthalate (DBP) (Aldrich, Milwaukee, Wis.), with nile redsolution (1 mg/mL in toluene) were added to samples of beads, covered,vortexed then shaken on wrist shaker for approximately 12 hours. Thebeads were transferred to microcentifuge tubes and washed with Nile Redin methanol, then repeatedly with methanol until the decanted solventwas clear. The beads were collected in a solution of 0.01% Tween 20 inultrapure water. A single drop of the suspension was placed on amicroscope coverslip and allowed to dry protected from light.

Example 7

The porous silica beads prepared by the method of Example 1 wereevaluated to determine their characteristic optical response signatureto toluene vapor following the experimental method described above. Theresults are presented in FIG. 9 where the temporal optical response of62 individual bead sensors to a pulse of toluene vapor is shown.

Example 8

The poly(methylstyreneidivinyl benzene) beads prepared by the method ofExample 5 were evaluated to determine their characteristic opticalresponse signature to methanol vapor. The results are presented in FIG.10 where the temporal optical response of 39 individual bead sensors toa pulse of methanol vapor is shown.

Example 9

The (15-20% acryloxypropylmethylsiloxane) 80-85% dimethylsiloxanecopolymer beads prepared by the method of Example 4 were evaluated todetermine their characteristic optical response signature to bothtoluene and methanol vapor. The results are presented in FIG. 11 wherethe temporal optical responses of an individual bead sensor to a pulseof toluene and a pulse of methanol vapor is shown.

Example 10

The PDPO polymer coated porous silica beads prepared by the method ofExample 2 were evaluated to determine their characteristic opticalresponse signature to both toluene and methanol vapor. The results arepresented in FIG. 12 where the temporal optical responses of anindividual bead sensor to a pulse of toluene and a pulse of methanolvapor is shown.

Example 11

Porous silica beads prepared by the method of Example 1 wereincorporated into etched microwells on the distal end of a fiber opticbundle according to the method described above. The resultant sensorarray was evaluated to determine the characteristic optical responsesignature of the bead subpopulation to ethyl acetate vapor. The resultsare presented in FIG. 13 where the temporal optical response of 218individual bead sensors to a pulse of ethyl acetate vapor is shown.

Example 12

The signal summing method of the present invention was evaluated inanalyzing the experimental measurements made onpoly(methylstyrene/divinyl benzene) beads prepared by the method ofExample 5 and tested by the method of Example 8. The results are shownin FIG. 14 where the normalized temporal optical response for a singlesensor bead, Bead #1, is compared with the summed responses of all 39beads tested.

As shown by FIG. 14, the signal summing method of the present inventionsignificantly reduces the experimental noise encountered in a singlesensor bead measurement and provides a substantial improvement, ten-foldor greater, in the signal-to-noise ratio of analytical measurements.

Example 13

The signal summing method of the present invention was evaluated inanalyzing the experimental measurements made onpoly(methylstyrene/divinyl benzene) beads prepared by the method ofExample 5 and tested by the method of Example 8. The results are shownin FIG. 15 where the actual relative intensities of the temporal opticalresponse for each of the 39 sensor beads is compared to relativeintensity of the temporal optical response obtained from signal summing.As shown by FIG. 15, substantial signal enhancement is obtained bysignal summing with a correspondingly significant improvement, up to ahundred fold, in the detection limit for target analytes.

Example 14

The polysiloxane coated porous silica beads prepared by the method ofExample 3 were evaluated to determine their characteristic opticalresponse signature to both toluene and methanol vapor. The results arepresented in FIG. 16 where the temporal optical responses of two beadsensors to both toluene and methanol are shown. The results shown inFIG. 16 demonstrates the capability of this subpopulation of beadsensors to distinguish between two analytes of interest by utilizing thecharacteristic optical response signatures of the bead sensors tospecific analytes.

Example 15

A 50/50 mixture of porous silica beads prepared by the method of Example1 and poly(methylstyrene/divinyl benzene) beads prepared by the methodof Example 5 were randomly dispersed and incorporated into etchedmicrowells on the distal end of a fiber optic bundle according to themethod of the present invention as described above. The resultant sensorarray was evaluated to determine the characteristic optical responsesignature of the bead subpopulation to methanol vapor. A 535 nmexcitation filter and 600 nm emission filter was used in thisexperiment. The results are presented in FIG. 17 where the normalizedtemporal optical response of 3 porous silica bead sensors and 6 PMS beadsensors to a pulse of methanol vapor is shown. In this example, thecharacteristic emitted light peak shapes of the bead subpopulationsprovide a distinguishable characteristic response signature for eachsubpopulation. FIG. 17 demonstrates the innovative self-encoding featureof the present invention where the identity and location of the beads isdetermined in a single measurement of a reference vapor analyte.

Example 16

The self-encoded fiber optic sensor array produced by the method ofExample 15 was evaluated by measuring the characteristic temporaloptical response signature of the porous silica and PMS sensor beadsubpopulations of the array in response to a pulse of n-propanol vapor.The results are presented in FIG. 18 where the temporal optical responseof 3 porous silica bead sensors and 6 PMS bead sensors to a pulse ofn-propanol vapor is shown. In this example, the characteristic emittedlight intensities of the bead subpopulations provide a distinguishablecharacteristic response signature for each subpopulation. FIG. 18demonstrates the advantages of using the distinct characteristictemporal optical response signature of different bead subpopulations todetect a specific analyte of interest. Note that the identity andlocation of the bead sensors in the sensor array was decoded by themethod of Example 15. By the combination of self-encoding the sensorarray by the method of Example 15 and the sensor array measurement madeby the method of the current Example 16, the sensor array was trained todetect and distinguish methanol from n-propanol.

Example 17

The self-encoded fiber optic sensor array produced by the method ofExample 15 was evaluated by measuring the characteristic temporaloptical response signature of the porous silica and PMS sensor beadsubpopulations of the array in response to a pulse of toluene vapor. Theresults are presented in FIG. 19 where the temporal optical response of3 porous silica bead sensors and 6 PMS bead sensors to a pulse oftoluene vapor is shown. FIG. 19 demonstrates the advantages of using thecharacteristic temporal optical response signature of different beadsubpopulations to detect a specific analyte of interest. Note that theidentity and location of the bead sensors in the sensor array wasdecoded by the method of Example 15. By the combination of decoding theself-encoding the sensor array by the method of Example 15, the sensorarray measurement made by the method of Example 16, and the sensor arraymeasurement made by the method of the current Example 17, the sensorarray was trained to detect and distinguish between the group of targetanalytes comprising methanol, n-propanol, and toluene.

Example 18

Samples of PS802 bead sensors produced by the method of Example 4, Polymethyl styrene/2% divinyl benzene bead sensors produced by the method ofExample 5, and commercially available poly methyl styrene beads (BangsLaboratory, Fishers, Ind.) were dispersed on a microscope coverslipsubstrate. Following equilibration of each bead subpopulation in air,each subpopulation was exposed to a pulse of saturated toluene vaporwhile illuminating the beads with excitation light energy. The changesin bead dimension due to the swelling response of each polymer type totoluene vapor was monitored using the apparatus of FIG. 7. The responseof the bead was recorded by filming the time varying fluorescence imageof the beads and capturing changes in bead image dimensions with a CCDcamera. FIG. 20 illustrates the differences in swelling response of thethree bead subpopulations by comparing the initial fluorescence image ofeach bead type in air with subsequent image of each bead type followingexposure to toluene vapor. Such measurements of the swelling responsecharacteristics of various polymer candidate materials is useful inprescreening bead sensor materials for use as bead sensor elements inthe self-encoded sensor array of the present invention.

Example 19

The use of bead summing for sensitive detection. An array containing 25oligonucleotide probes attached to encoded microspheres was made.

Before attaching oligonucleotides to the microspheres, a family ofdye-encoded microspheres was created. Fluorescent dyes were used toencode the microspheres. Europium(III)thenoyltrifluoro-acetonate-3H₂O(_(ex)/_(em)=365/615) (Eu-dye), (_(ex)/_(em)=620/700) and5-(and-6)-carboxytetramethyl-rhodamine, succinimidyl ester(_(ex)/_(em)=535/580) (TAMRA, SE) were chosen for this demonstration.The dyes were incorporated by exploiting the chemical properties of theamino-modified polystyrene microspheres as follows. 200-μL-aliquots ofstock (1 mL of stock beads contains 5.8×10⁹ beads in 0.01% merthiolatein water) 3.1 μm-diameter amine-modifiedpoly(methylstyrene)divinylbenzene microspheres (Bangs Laboratories, Inc.Carmel, Ind.) were filtered and washed with dry THF then placed in amicro centrifuge tube. 200 μL ofeuropium(III)thenoyltrifluoroacetonate-3H₂O [Eu-dye (Acros)] dye in THFwas added to the beads. Eu-dye concentrations of 0, 0.001, 0.01, 0.025,0.05, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 M were used. The microsphere/dye suspension wasshaken (VWR Vortex Genie II) for 2 h. The suspensions were filteredseparately (Millipore Type HVLP) and washed thoroughly with MeOH. Thebeads were stored in 0.01% Tween (essential for preparation and storageto prevent the beads from clumping together) in ultrapure water untiluse.

Alternatively, external encoding was done. 10 μL of stock beads wererinsed (all rinsing procedures entailed placing the centrifuge tubecontaining the beads and solution into a micro centrifuge at 8000 rpmfor 3 min, and liquid over the beads was removed using a pipette) withBT buffer (0.1 M boric acid, 0.1 M NaOH, 0.13 M NaHCO₃, 0.01% Tween, pH9). The beads were suspended in 100 μL BT buffer then 5 μL of dyesolution [Cy5 (Amersham) or TAMRA(Molecular Probes)] in DMF was added.Cy5 concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.3 mM and TAMRAconcentrations of 0, 0.1, 0.4, and 3 mM were used. The beads were shakenfor 2 h then rinsed three times with BT buffer then three times withPBST buffer (0.01 M phosphate buffer saline, 0.01% Tween, pH 7.4).

The polystyrene microspheres swell in tetrahydrofuran (THF) enabling adye to penetrate the microsphere and become entrapped when themicrosphere contracts. The absorption and emission spectra of the dyesare not compromised within the microsphere's environment and theirconcentration remains constant over time. Eight distinguishablemicrosphere families were prepared by entrapping varying Eu-dyeconcentrations inside the microspheres. In addition to internalentrapment, the microspheres' amine-modified surface permitted couplingto amine-reactive dyes. Different concentrations of Cy5 and TAMRA werethen attached to the surface amine groups of the eight Eu-dye beads. Alibrary of 100 spectroscopically-distinguishable microsphere types wasprepared using various combinations of the three dyes. Microsphereencoding was carried out prior to oligonucleotide attachment becausereaction with the amine reactive dyes after probe attachment affectedthe hybridization reaction. On the other hand, the oligonucleotideprobes on the surface of the microspheres are not affected by subsequentinternal encoding with Eu-dye.

DNA Attachment. After the encoded microsphere library was in hand, wefunctionalized each encoded microsphere with a different single strandedDNA probe. Sequences of each probe are shown in FIG. 21. A protocol usedpreviously to create a single core fiber optic DNA array was modified toprepare the DNA-microsphere sensors.

DNA probes were synthesized with a 5′-amino-C6 modifier (Glen Research)in the Tufts Physiology Department using an ABI synthesizer. 20 nmol ofthe 5′-amino-terminal oligonucleotide probe were dissolved in 180 μL of0.1 M sodium borate buffer (SBB pH 8.3). Oligonucleotide activation wasinitiated by adding 40 nmol of cyanuric chloride in 40 μL ofacetonitrile. After 1 h, unreacted cyanuric chloride was removed bythree cycles of centrifugal ultrafiltration (Microcon 3, Amicon) andrecovered in 200 μL of 0.1 M SBB.

DNA functionalization. Five μL of stock beads were rinsed with 0.02 Mphosphate buffer (pH 7). 150 μL of 5% glutaraldehyde in phosphate bufferwas added to the beads. The beads were shaken for 1 h then rinsed threetimes with phosphate buffer. 150 μL of 5% polyethyleneimine (PEI) wasthen added to the beads. The beads were shaken for 1 h then rinsed threetimes with phosphate buffer then three times with 0.1 M SBB (sodiumborate buffer, pH 8.3). 100 μL of 150 μM cyanuric chloride-activatedoligonucleotide probe in SBB buffer was added to the beads and shakenovernight. The probe solution was removed and saved for reuse. The beadswere then rinsed three times with SBB buffer. Remaining amine groupswere capped with succinic anhydride to prevent non-specific binding. 100μL of 0.1 M succinic anhydride in 90% DMSO, 10% SBB was added to thebeads. The beads were shaken for 1 h then rinsed three times with SBBbuffer then three times with TE buffer (10 mM Tris-HCL, pH 8.3, 1 mMEDTA, 0.1 M NaCl, 0.1% SDS).

When the cyanuric chloride-activated probes were attached directly tothe amine-modified polystyrene microspheres detectable fluorescentsignals were generated by hybridized labeled targets. However, by firstmodifying the microspheres with polyethyleneimine (PEI) before DNAfunctionalization the signal increased ten-fold because the number ofattachment sites available was amplified (data not shown). Non-specificbinding of the target to the amine-functionalized microsphere surfacewas prevented by capping unreacted amines with succinic anhydride. Theresulting encoded probe-functionalized microspheres can be stored formonths and mixed in any desired combination to create or alter the DNAsensor array.

Microsphere-based fiber-optic sensors. Recently, we reported an arrayconsisting of randomly distributed independently addressablemicron-bead-sensors using an imaging-optical-fiber substrate. Thissystem employed imaging fibers consisting of six thousand individuallyclad fibers that were melted and drawn together to form a coherent,500-μm diameter bundle. The compositional difference between the coreand cladding of each fiber enables the cores to be etched selectivelyproviding for the simultaneous formation of six thousand 3.5 μm-diameterwells in the surface of the fiber tip within seconds. See Michael etal., Anal. Chem. 70: 1242 (1998); Bronk et al., Anal. Chem. 67:2750(1995) and Pantano et al., Chem. Materials 8:2832 (1996), all of whichare incorporated by reference.

Microwell formation. 500 μm-diameter imaging fiber bundles containing6×10⁴ individual fibers were chemically etched according to a previouslydetailed procedure; see Pantano et al. Chem. Materials 8:2832 (1996).

Array formation. Five μL of probe-functionalized beads were stored in 40μL of TE buffer. After selecting the desired probe-functionalizedmicrospheres, 1 μL, of each bead solution was placed in amicrocentrifuge tube and vortexed. 0.05 μL, of this mixture was placedonto the distal face of the imaging fiber containing the microwells.After evaporation of the solvent (approximately 3 min), the distal tipof the fiber is wiped with an anti-static swab to remove excess beads.When a new sensor is desired, sonicating the fiber tip for 3 min willregenerate the substrate.

Individual beads settle spontaneously into the wells as the waterdroplet evaporates to produce a randomly-distributed array of thousandsof microsphere sensors. Excess microspheres are removed from the fibertip while electrostatic interaction between the beads and the wellsholds each microsphere in place.

Controlling array formation. One of the primary advantages of thissystem is the ability to alter the types of microspheres contained in anarray. Each milliliter of stock solution contains approximately 6×10⁹microspheres enabling functionalization of billions of beads at once.Even after a 20× dilution, a 1 μL, volume of microsphere solutioncontains enough beads to produce hundreds of different arrays. Thedensity of microspheres in solution can control the number of occupiedwells. With dilute solutions, empty wells remain after the initial arrayproduction. Additional microspheres bearing different probes can beadded to the unoccupied sites or to the original solution at any time tocreate a more diverse array. If a different selection of beads isdesired, sonicating the fiber tip removes all of the beads from thewells, enabling a new sensor array to be made in the same substrate.

Optical imaging and analysis system. Coupling the imaging fiber bundleto a detection system with a CCD camera enables us to resolve each fiberindependently, and hence the microsphere residing in the well at eachfiber tip, while simultaneously viewing the entire array. Hybridizationwas visualized using fluorescent-labeled complementary targets. Themicrospheres bearing a fluorescent signal due to a hybridized target areselected and the identity of the probe on each bead is determined by themicrospheres' spectroscopic signature.

Analysis set-up and protocol. The imaging system, described previously,consists of a light source, inverted microscope, and a modified Olympusepifluorescence microscope/charge coupled device camera (PhotometriesPXL). A fiber chuck held the imaging fiber in a fixed position whileelectronically controlled filter wheels switch between the analyticalwavelength and the encoding wavelengths, enabling complete analysis andidentification of the microspheres within minutes. Excitation light wassent into the proximal tip of the imaging fiber and emission from thefluorescing molecules is captured and directed onto the CCD cameradetector. Fluorescence measurements were acquired and analyzed usingcommercially available IPLab software (Signal Analytics).

The fiber was not removed from the imaging system during testing,rinsing, or regeneration steps. The proximal tip of the fiber wassecured in the fiber chuck of the imaging system and all solutions werebrought to the fiber's distal tip which housed the microbead sensors.Images acquired immediately prior to each test while the fiber tip wasin buffer were subtracted from the response images. Background signalsfrom empty wells were then subtracted from signals generated during eachtest.

Hybridization in real time. Each microsphere's fixed position madepossible a hybridization study in real time. A DNA array containingidentical beads was placed on the imaging system. The distal tip of thefiber bearing the microsphere sensors was placed in a labeled-targetsolution. Emission from hybridizing labeled-target was captured everyminute for several minutes. In the small region of the imaging fiberselected for this study, 70 microspheres held the probe complementary tothe target in solution. Each microsphere was monitored independently andsimultaneously. Signals from 40 beads were averaged to provide kineticdata. At relatively high concentrations of target, hybridization couldbe detected immediately, as seen by the steep slope of the data. Whilethe sensor remained on the imaging system it was regenerated by dippingthe fiber tip into a room-temperature formamide solution. The samemicrospheres were assayed several times by placing the regenerated fiberinto the target solution and repeating the experiment. Consecutivestudies show that the same sensor can be used for multiple tests.

A background fluorescence image was acquired at wavelengths specific tofluorescein (excitation 490 nm emission 530 nm) with the fiber's distaltip in buffer. The fiber's distal tip was then placed in 4 μL offluorescein-labeled target solution and one image was acquired everyminute for 10 min. Subsequently, the fiber was dipped in 90% formamidein TE buffer at room temperature (rt) to regenerate the sensor and abackground image was taken with the fiber in buffer. The fiber was againplaced in the target solution where images were acquired for another 10min interval.

Reproducibility and regenerability. The signal from the microspheresreturns to background and the sensor can be used for multiple analyseswith comparable results. 100 assays of the same DNA array sensor wereperformed over several days. The average of fluorescent signals obtainedafter hybridization with an array containing two bead types was done.The low standard deviation exemplifies the robust nature of the DNAmicrospheres. At periodic intervals during the 100-assay test,microspheres carrying the second probe in the same array were tested tosee if regeneration affected their response. Both probe types showed nocompromise in response during the tests. Each array can be used formultiple tests since it is regenerated quickly and easily. The abilityto reuse a single array hundreds of times significantly increasesthroughput and decreases the cost of each array.

The fiber's distal tip was placed in 4 μL, of labeled-target solutionfor 5 min, rinsed with TE buffer, and a fluorescence image was acquiredfor 5 s. The fiber tip was then dipped in 90% formamide in TE (rt) toremove any hybridized target and regenerate the sensor. This procedurewas repeated 100 times using the IL2 target and 5 times (intermittentlyduring the IL2 tests) using the IL6 target.

Kinetic Study. The fiber tip was placed in the target solution for agiven time, rinsed with TE and a fluorescence image was acquired withthe sensor in buffer. After data acquisition, the fiber was placed backin the target solution for a given time, rinsed and analyzed in buffer.The sensor was monitored at elapsed times of 10 s, 20 s, 30 s, 1 min, 2min, 3 min, 4 min, 5 min and 10 min. After a plateau was reached, thesensor was regenerated by dipping in a 90% formamide solution in TE (rt)and the test was repeated using a different concentration of targetsolution.

Microsphere sensitivity. The fiber's distal tip was placed in 4 μL oftarget solution until the hybridization signal to noise ratio was three.The signal was monitored after rinsing the fiber tip with TE buffer andacquiring a fluorescence image for 5 s while the fiber tip was inbuffer. For the hour-long assays, a 0.6 mL centrifuge tube was filledand capped. A hole was drilled in the cap to enable the fiber tip to beplaced in the target solution while preventing evaporation.

Sensitivity with an intensified CCD camera. The 21-mer cystic fibrosisoligonucleotide probe and complement with F508C mutation (5′-TAT CAT CTGTGG TGT TTC CTA-3′) (SEQ ID NO:11) were used for this study. The5′-amino-terminal oligonucleotide probe was activated with 100 timesexcess of cyanuric chloride. The microspheres were incubated with 400 Mcyanuric chloride-activated oligonucleotide. The fluorescein-labeledtarget was dissolved in 6× saline sodium phosphate EDTA buffer (SSPE)containing 0.1% SDS. The fiber's distal tip was placed in 10 μL oftarget solution during hybridization with occasional stirring. Thedistal tip was then washed with 6×SSPE and a fluorescence image wasacquired with a Pentamax ICCD camera (Princeton Instruments) for 1 swhile the fiber tip was in 120 μL of 6×SSPE.

Preparation of 10 to 125 bp ssDNA. One hundred μg of sperm DNA (587 to831 base pairs) was incubated with nuclease S1 [3.96 U/μL (Gibco-BRL)]at 37° C. for 1 h in 30 mM sodium acetate buffer (pH 4.6) with 30 mMsodium chloride and 1 mM zinc acetate. After the reaction, the enzymewas removed from the DNA preparation by extraction with phenol:chloroform: isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1, equilibrated to pH 8.0). DNAbetween 10 and 125 base pairs was recovered by ultrafiltration withMicrocon 3 (10 bp cut-oft) and Microcon 50 (125 bp cut-oft). The DNA wasquantified with OligoGreen single-stranded DNA quantitation reagent(Molecular Probes).

Multiplex Analysis. Images were acquired for 1 s and 0.5 s atwavelengths specific to each encoding dye. A 365 nm excitation filterand a 600 nm long pass emission filter were used for the Eu-dye. A 620nm excitation filter and a 670 nm emission filter were used for the Cy5dye. A 530 nm excitation filter and a 580 nm emission filter were usedfor the TAMRA. The images acquired at the three wavelength pairs wereused to positionally register each microsphere sensor.

The fiber's distal tip was placed in a target solution for 5 min, rinsedwith TE buffer, and fluorescence images were acquired for 5 s while thefiber was in buffer. Overlay segments were drawn to select the beadsbearing a hybridization signal using IPLab software. These overlaysegments were copied and pasted onto each of the encoding images and theselected beads' identity was determined. The sensor was regenerated asdescribed above and this procedure was repeated for each of the targetsolutions.

Hybridization specificity in a multiplex assay. To demonstrate thismicrosphere array system, we first selected seven probes used inprevious work (sequences 1-7 of FIG. 21). The DNA sequences chosen forthe array were designed to be completely specific at room temperature.The signals at two of the three encoding wavelengths is used topositionally register the microspheres. After registration at theencoding wavelengths, the array is ready for use. The fiber tip isdipped into a fluorescent-labeled target solution. After a specifiedtime, the fiber tip is removed from the target solution, rinsed withbuffer, and placed in buffer solution. Microspheres bearing acomplementary probe display a fluorescent signal due to the hybridizedlabeled target. Completely specific hybridizations for seven differenttargets in an array were observed. Replicates of each bead type locatedrandomly within the array yield redundant information which contributesto the array's reliability. FIG. 22 shows the accuracy of the system tocorrectly identify the target.

We have also demonstrated single-base-pair mismatch differentiation byconducting the hybridization at 53° C. (data not shown). Similar signalsare generated from the hybridized complementary fluorescent-labeledtarget at room temperature and at the elevated temperature. Thehybridized single base mismatch fluorescent-labeled target produced 50%less signal than the complementary target at room temperature. At theelevated temperature, the signal from the hybridized single basemismatch target was at the background level.

After the initial demonstration, we selected 25 sequences fromdisease-related genes (oncogenes and cystic fibrosis) and disease states(lymphocyte and cytokine expression) which are completely specific atroom temperature (FIG. 21). An array sensor was created with thedifferent probes each attached to a different encoded microsphere. Afterregistration, the array was interrogated with each of the 25 targetsolutions as described above with sensor regeneration between each test.Approximately 20% (1295 out of 6000) of the wells were occupied with anaverage of 50 replicates of each bead type in the array. The resultingdata (FIG. 23) enabled the correct identification of each targetsolution.

Hybridization at elevated temperature. An array was created using a 450mm long fiber. The proximal end of the fiber was connected to theimaging system and the distal end was held in a verticalmicropositioner. The buffer and target temperatures were controlled by awater bath. Testing was performed as described above.

Sensitivity of the microspheres. There are three aspects to sensitivity:sample volume, target concentration, and absolute number of targetmolecules. The smaller the volume required, the less a sample needs tobe amplified for detection since the same number of absolute targetmolecules in a smaller volume generates a higher local concentration.Sample volumes as small as 4 μL are required with this system since onlythe tip of the 500 μm-diameter fiber is dipped into the solution.Typically, we use 10 μL volumes for easier handling and to avoidevaporation.

In order to evaluate the concentration sensitivity of the array, anintensified CCD (ICCD) camera was used. The camera is fitted with amicro channel plate image intensifier that is optically coupled to a CCDarray. By employing the ICCD camera, the time needed to analyze thelowest concentrations was significantly reduced relative to anunintensified camera. For comparison, at 100 fM, an unintensified cameratook 4 h to detect a signal. To determine the sensitivity for a giventarget, an array was prepared consisting of 500 identical beads. Wereasoned that the sensitivity obtained by observing multiple beads inthe array would provide us with a signal to background advantage. To oursatisfaction, this advantage was borne out.

Sensitivity experiments were carried out as follows: the array washybridized in 10 μL solutions containing progressively decreasingconcentrations of labeled target. The lowest concentration evaluated was1 fM. At various times, the array was taken out of the hybridizationsolution, rinsed, and a fluorescence image was collected. The array wasthen placed back into the hybridization buffer. After hybridization, thearray was dehybridized with formamide and five background measurementswere taken in 6×SSPE. ROI's from 10 or 100 beads in the five images wereaveraged to provide the mean background. The mean background values weresubtracted from the fluorescence intensities of the various numbers ofbeads. Individual beads exhibited significant variability such that itwas not possible to ascertain whether or not a signal was present. Onthe other hand, summing signals from multiple beads provided detectablesignals. The average signal of ten beads gave a 7% CV while 100 beadsprovided more precise average values with 3% CV. Results from threerepresentative sets of ten beads for the complementary target and twonon-complementary targets are presented in FIG. 24. The hybridizationtime was determined when the signal was over three times the standarddeviation of the background signals (>3 sd). Using this criterion, themicrosphere-fiber-optic system is able to detect a 1 μM target solutionusing a 10 μL volume in 1 hour.

Both 10 and 100 beads from a total of 500 beads in the array wereselected and monitored. In a 1 fM target solution, 10 μL contains ca.6000 DNA molecules. With 500 identical beads in the array giving asignal, each bead would be expected to contain, on average, ca. 12labeled target molecules on its surface. To confidently attest to thegeneration of signal, the average signal of at least ten beads wasneeded. Therefore, this system can give sufficient signal with only 120molecules.

FIG. 24 shows the specificity of the F508C oligonucleotide array to 1 fMtarget concentrations. Each target was tested three times. Thenon-specific binding signal was always less than three times the sd ofthe background. Hybridization of I fM target solution was also monitoredusing microspheres made with 4 times diluted cyanuric chloride activatedoligonucleotide. In this case, no signal was obtained after 1 hdemonstrating that the amount of probe on the surface of themicrospheres plays an important role in the sensitivity.

Analyses were performed in the presence of single-stranded salmon spermDNA [587 to 831 base pairs (Sigma)]. With up to 10 ng of sperm DNA,there was no observable inhibition in target hybridization. The analyseswere also done with 10 ng of shorter lengths of sperm DNA (10 to 125base pairs). In this case, hybridization of 1 and 10 fM target solutionwas inhibited. However, the same signal could be observed (>3 sd) withan additional 30 minutes of incubation time more than the values givenin FIG. 23.

Since fluorescein was used to label the DNA targets, we selectedencoding dyes with spectral properties that would not overlap with thefluorescein spectrum. Covalently binding these dyes to the surface ofthe amine-functionalized microspheres yielded stable and reproduciblesignals. Unfortunately, such surface encoding reduces the number ofamines available for the cyanuric chloride-activated oligonucleotideprobe. Therefore, the concentrations of the dyes were optimized toenable sufficient signals from both the encoding dyes and the hybridizedtarget. The finite number of surface amine groups reduces the range andnumber of dye combinations that can be generated with anexternal-labeling scheme. To increase the number of encodedmicrospheres, dyes also can be entrapped inside the bead. Lanthanidedyes are suitable for such internal encoding. The dyes' spectra are notcompromised and their intensity remains constant once inside themicrosphere.

The DNA sequences employed in this work play important roles in theimmune system. Not only is detection of these sequences important, butquantification of their expression can provide relevant clues inexpression pattern during different disease states. Competition betweenlabeled and unlabeled targets and kinetic rates of hybridization aremethods used to quantitate analytes of interest. Single base mismatchesare also an important area in genomic research. The microsphere fiberoptic array completely discriminates between single base pair mismatchesat elevated temperatures.

This microarray has the shortest total assay time relative to other highdensity DNA analysis systems and can monitor hybridization directly inthe target solution. The high density of probes on each bead and thesmall bead size contribute to the short analysis time and sensitivity ofthe system. DNA samples presently require PCR amplification foranalysis. Standard PCR starts with 102 to 105 copies of template. TheDNA microbead array is capable of detecting 6000 target molecules. Thisresult shows that DNA detection can be done without PCR amplification.At first, this result seems to defy logic; a standard white lightsource, camera, and optics are all employed. This level of sensitivitygenerally requires lasers, confocal optics and avalanche photodiodes. Ifwe consider, however, that 12 molecules confined to a well volume (beadand liquid) of approximately 30 fL provides a local concentration of 10nM, it becomes easy to understand why we are able to detect such smallnumbers of molecules. Nanomolar concentrations of fluorescence can bedetected readily by the optical system. Thus, confining a small numberof molecules to a small volume reduces the uncertainty of finding suchlow absolute molecule numbers by providing a relatively high localconcentration. Bead replicates improve the confidence level evenfurther. Longer strands of DNA that are typically in template DNA didnot affect the sensitivity of the system. It can be concluded that thepresence of a target sequence can be determined in a genomic DNAsolution without PCR amplification.

The DNA microarray presented here has smaller feature sizes and higherpacking densities compared to other DNA arrays. We have demonstrated thefiber optic microarray using a 500 um-diameter imaging fiber with welldiameters of 3.5 m. Fibers have also been tapered to produce nanometerscale wells serving as host to nanometer-diameter beads. Using longerfibers, the microarray sensor tp can be brought to the sample and usedto sequentially test multiple solutions. Utilizing the imaging fiber'sremote sensing capabilities, arrays with nanometer dimensionspotentially can be used for direct intracellular analysis.

The advantages of this high-density randomly-distributedmicrometer-sized high-resolution microsphere-based DNA array includecost effective production of the microbead array in seconds, highthroughput analysis, easy replacement or addition with othermicrospheres when different testing is desired and facile regenerationof the sensor and substrate. In addition, the array can be brought tothe sample solution rather than the solution being brought to the array.We are presently working on improving the sensitivity of the system tofurther reduce amplification requirements. With appropriatemodifications, this general approach can be applied to the fabricationof libraries containing combinatorial peptides, antibodies, and othermolecules.

While this invention has been particularly shown and described withreferences to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood bythose skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may bemade therein without departing from the spirit and scope of theinvention as defined by the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of detecting an analyte, said methodcomprising: (a) providing a planar array comprising a population ofsensor elements at a density of at least 20,000 sensor elements per 1mm², said population of sensor elements comprising differentsubpopulations of redundant sensor elements, wherein analytes are boundto separate redundant sensor elements in at least one of saidsubpopulations of sensor elements; (b) distinguishing signals generatedfrom said separate redundant sensor elements that are bound to saidanalytes; and (c) combining each of the signals distinguished from saidseparate redundant sensor elements, wherein said signals indicate thepresence of said analyte, and wherein said signals comprise opticalsignals, or non-optical signals generated by the separate redundantsensor elements.
 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising convertingsaid optical signals to data representations of optical signals.
 3. Themethod of claim 1, wherein said non-optical signals comprise signalsselected from the group consisting of spectroscopic signals, resonancesignals and radioactive signals.
 4. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising converting said non-optical signals to data representationsof non-optical signals.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein sensorelements in said population of sensor elements comprise wells.
 6. Themethod of claim 5, wherein some but not all of the wells comprise beads.7. The method of claim 1, wherein a sensor element in said population ofsensor elements comprises a well that includes a bead.
 8. The method ofclaim 7, wherein said well is adapted to include no more than one bead.9. The method of claim 1, wherein said combining comprises summing saidsignals detected at separate redundant sensor elements.
 10. The methodof claim 1, further comprising performing a statistical analysis on saidsignals detected at separate redundant sensor elements, therebydetermining statistical validity of said signals.
 11. The method ofclaim 10 further comprising determining outlier signals and excludingsaid outlier signals from said statistical analysis.
 12. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said at least one subpopulation of redundant sensorelements comprises at least five-fold sensor redundancy.
 13. The methodof claim 1, wherein said redundant sensor elements comprise nucleicacids.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein said redundant sensor elementscomprise antibodies.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein said redundantsensor elements comprise enzymes.
 16. The method of claim 1 furthercomprising separately combining over time a signal detected at aseparate redundant sensor element.
 17. The method of claim 1, whereinsaid array comprises a population of sensor elements at a density of atleast 50,000 sensor elements per 1 mm².
 18. The method of claim 1,wherein the planar array comprises a pattern of charged groups.
 19. Themethod of claim 1, wherein said signals comprise optical signalsgenerated by the separate redundant sensor elements.
 20. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said signals comprise non-optical signals generated bythe separate redundant sensor elements.